牛顿英语简介50字

(中文）艾萨克·牛顿（1643年（格里历）1月4日—1727年3月31日）爵士，英国皇家学会会长，英国著名的物理学家，百科全书式的“全才”，著有《自然哲学的数学原理》、《光学》。 他在1687年发表的论文《自然定律》里，对万有引力和三大运动定律进行了描述。这些描述奠定了此后三个世纪里物理世界的科学观点，并成为了现代工程学的基础。他通过论证开普勒行星运动定律与他的引力理论间的一致性，展示了地面物体与天体的运动都遵循着相同的自然定律；为太阳中心说提供了强有力的理论支持，并推动了科学革命。 在力学上，牛顿阐明了动量和角动量守恒的原理，提出牛顿运动定律[1] 。在光学上，他发明了反射望远镜，并基于对三棱镜将白光发散成可见光谱的观察，发展出了颜色理论。他还系统地表述了冷却定律，并研究了音速。 在数学上，牛顿与戈特弗里德·威廉·莱布尼茨分享了发展出微积分学的荣誉。他也证明了广义二项式定理，提出了“牛顿法”以趋近函数的零点，并为幂级数的研究做出了贡献。 在经济学上，牛顿提出金本位制度。（英文）Isaac Newton (1643 (Gregorian calendar) Jan 4 - March 31, 1727) Sir, president of the Royal Society, the famous British physicist, encyclopedia-style "all-rounder", the the "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", "optics." In 1687, he published the essay "Natural Law", the gravitation and the three laws of motion are described. These descriptions lay the scientific point of view the three centuries since then the physical world, and became the basis for modern engineering. He Kepler laws of planetary motion by demonstrating the consistency between his theory of gravity, showing the movement of ground objects and other heavenly bodies have followed the same laws of nature; for the heliocentric theory provides a strong support, and to promote the Scientific Revolution. In mechanics, Newton clarifies the principle of conservation of momentum and angular momentum, Newton's laws of motion put forward [1]. In optics, he invented the reflecting telescope, and will be based on a prism of white light into the visible spectrum divergence observed, developed a theory of color. He also systematically expresses the law of cooling and studied the speed of sound. In mathematics, Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz developed calculus to share the school's honor. He also demonstrated the generalized binomial theorem, proposed the "Newton's Law" to function closer to zero, and for the study of power series to make a contribution. In economics, Newton made the gold standard.

Isaac Newton's Life Special thanks to the Microsoft Corporation for their contribution to our site. The following information came from Microsoft Encarta. I INTRODUCTION Newton, Sir Isaac (1642-1727), mathematician and physicist, one of the foremost scientific intellects of all time. Born at Woolsthorpe, near Grantham in Lincolnshire, where he attended school, he entered Cambridge University in 1661; he was elected a Fellow of Trinity College in 1667, and Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 1669. He remained at the university, lecturing in most years, until 1696. Of these Cambridge years, in which Newton was at the height of his creative power, he singled out 1665-1666 (spent largely in Lincolnshire because of plague in Cambridge) as "the prime of my age for invention". During two to three years of intense mental effort he prepared Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) commonly known as the Principia, although this was not published until 1687. As a firm opponent of the attempt by King James II to make the universities into Catholic institutions, Newton was elected Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge to the Convention Parliament of 1689, and sat again in 1701-1702. Meanwhile, in 1696 he had moved to London as Warden of the Royal Mint. He became Master of the Mint in 1699, an office he retained to his death. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1671, and in 1703 he became President, being annually re-elected for the rest of his life. His major work, Opticks, appeared the next year; he was knighted in Cambridge in 1705. As Newtonian science became increasingly accepted on the Continent, and especially after a general peace was restored in 1714, following the War of the Spanish Succession, Newton became the most highly esteemed natural philosopher in Europe. His last decades were passed in revising his major works, polishing his studies of ancient history, and defending himself against critics, as well as carrying out his official duties. Newton was modest, diffident, and a man of simple tastes. He was angered by criticism or opposition, and harboured resentment; he was harsh towards enemies but generous to friends. In government, and at the Royal Society, he proved an able administrator. He never married and lived modestly, but was buried with great pomp in Westminster Abbey. Newton has been regarded for almost 300 years as the founding examplar of modern physical science, his achievements in experimental investigation being as innovative as those in mathematical research. With equal, if not greater, energy and originality he also plunged into chemistry, the early history of Western civilization, and theology; among his special studies was an investigation of the form and dimensions, as described in the Bible, of Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem. II OPTICS In 1664, while still a student, Newton read recent work on optics and light by the English physicists Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke; he also studied both the mathematics and the physics of the French philosopher and scientist René Descartes. He investigated the refraction of light by a glass prism; developing over a few years a series of increasingly elaborate, refined, and exact experiments, Newton discovered measurable, mathematical patterns in the phenomenon of colour. He found white light to be a mixture of infinitely varied coloured rays (manifest in the rainbow and the spectrum), each ray definable by the angle through which it is refracted on entering or leaving a given transparent medium. He correlated this notion with his study of the interference colours of thin films (for example, of oil on water, or soap bubbles), using a simple technique of extreme acuity to measure the thickness of such films. He held that light consisted of streams of minute particles. From his experiments he could infer the magnitudes of the transparent "corpuscles" forming the surfaces of bodies, which, according to their dimensions, so interacted with white light as to reflect, selectively, the different observed colours of those surfaces. The roots of these unconventional ideas were with Newton by about 1668; when first expressed (tersely and partially) in public in 1672 and 1675, they provoked hostile criticism, mainly because colours were thought to be modified forms of homogeneous white light. Doubts, and Newton's rejoinders, were printed in the learned journals. Notably, the scepticism of Christiaan Huygens and the failure of the French physicist Edmé Mariotte to duplicate Newton's refraction experiments in 1681 set scientists on the Continent against him for a generation. The publication of Opticks, largely written by 1692, was delayed by Newton until the critics were dead. The book was still imperfect: the colours of diffraction defeated Newton. Nevertheless, Opticks established itself, from about 1715, as a model of the interweaving of theory with quantitative experimentation. III MATHEMATICS In mathematics too, early brilliance appeared in Newton's student notes. He may have learnt geometry at school, though he always spoke of himself as self-taught; certainly he advanced through studying the writings of his compatriots William Oughtred and John Wallis, and of Descartes and the Dutch school. Newton made contributions to all branches of mathematics then studied, but is especially famous for his solutions to the contemporary problems in analytical geometry of drawing tangents to curves (differentiation) and defining areas bounded by curves (integration). Not only did Newton discover that these problems were inverse to each other, but he discovered general methods of resolving problems of curvature, embraced in his "method of fluxions" and "inverse method of fluxions", respectively equivalent to Leibniz's later differential and integral calculus. Newton used the term "fluxion" (from Latin meaning "flow") because he imagined a quantity "flowing" from one magnitude to another. Fluxions were expressed algebraically, as Leibniz's differentials were, but Newton made extensive use also (especially in the Principia) of analogous geometrical arguments. Late in life, Newton expressed regret for the algebraic style of recent mathematical progress, preferring the geometrical method of the Classical Greeks, which he regarded as clearer and more rigorous. Newton's work on pure mathematics was virtually hidden from all but his correspondents until 1704, when he published, with Opticks, a tract on the quadrature of curves (integration) and another on the classification of the cubic curves. His Cambridge lectures, delivered from about 1673 to 1683, were published in 1707. The Calculus Priority Dispute Newton had the essence of the methods of fluxions by 1666. The first to become known, privately, to other mathematicians, in 1668, was his method of integration by infinite series. In Paris in 1675 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz independently evolved the first ideas of his differential calculus, outlined to Newton in 1677. Newton had already described some of his mathematical discoveries to Leibniz, not including his method of fluxions. In 1684 Leibniz published his first paper on calculus; a small group of mathematicians took up his ideas. In the 1690s Newton's friends proclaimed the priority of Newton's methods of fluxions. Supporters of Leibniz asserted that he had communicated the differential method to Newton, although Leibniz had claimed no such thing. Newtonians then asserted, rightly, that Leibniz had seen papers of Newton's during a London visit in 1676; in reality, Leibniz had taken no notice of material on fluxions. A violent dispute sprang up, part public, part private, extended by Leibniz to attacks on Newton's theory of gravitation and his ideas about God and creation; it was not ended even by Leibniz's death in 1716. The dispute delayed the reception of Newtonian science on the Continent, and dissuaded British mathematicians from sharing the researches of Continental colleagues for a century. IV MECHANICS AND GRAVITATION According to the well-known story, it was on seeing an apple fall in his orchard at some time during 1665 or 1666 that Newton conceived that the same force governed the motion of the Moon and the apple. He calculated the force needed to hold the Moon in its orbit, as compared with the force pulling an object to the ground. He also calculated the centripetal force needed to hold a stone in a sling, and the relation between the length of a pendulum and the time of its swing. These early explorations were not soon exploited by Newton, though he studied astronomy and the problems of planetary motion. Correspondence with Hooke (1679-1680) redirected Newton to the problem of the path of a body subjected to a centrally directed force that varies as the inverse square of the distance; he determined it to be an ellipse, so informing Edmond Halley in August 1684. Halley's interest led Newton to demonstrate the relationship afresh, to compose a brief tract on mechanics, and finally to write the Principia. Book I of the Principia states the foundations of the science of mechanics, developing upon them the mathematics of orbital motion round centres of force. Newton identified gravitation as the fundamental force controlling the motions of the celestial bodies. He never found its cause. To contemporaries who found the idea of attractions across empty space unintelligible, he conceded that they might prove to be caused by the impacts of unseen particles. Book II inaugurates the theory of fluids: Newton solves problems of fluids in movement and of motion through fluids. From the density of air he calculated the speed of sound waves. Book III shows the law of gravitation at work in the universe: Newton demonstrates it from the revolutions of the six known planets, including the Earth, and their satellites. However, he could never quite perfect the difficult theory of the Moon's motion. Comets were shown to obey the same law; in later editions, Newton added conjectures on the possibility of their return. He calculated the relative masses of heavenly bodies from their gravitational forces, and the oblateness of Earth and Jupiter, already observed. He explained tidal ebb and flow and the precession of the equinoxes from the forces exerted by the Sun and Moon. All this was done by exact computation. Newton's work in mechanics was accepted at once in Britain, and universally after half a century. Since then it has been ranked among humanity's greatest achievements in abstract thought. It was extended and perfected by others, notably Pierre Simon de Laplace, without changing its basis and it survived into the late 19th century before it began to show signs of failing. See Quantum Theory; Relativity. V ALCHEMY AND CHEMISTRY Newton left a mass of manuscripts on the subjects of alchemy and chemistry, then closely related topics. Most of these were extracts from books, bibliographies, dictionaries, and so on, but a few are original. He began intensive experimentation in 1669, continuing till he left Cambridge, seeking to unravel the meaning that he hoped was hidden in alchemical obscurity and mysticism. He sought understanding of the nature and structure of all matter, formed from the "solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, movable particles" that he believed God had created. Most importantly in the "Queries" appended to "Opticks" and in the essay "On the Nature of Acids" (1710), Newton published an incomplete theory of chemical force, concealing his exploration of the alchemists, which became known a century after his death. VI HISTORICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL STUDIES Newton owned more books on humanistic learning than on mathematics and science; all his life he studied them deeply. His unpublished "classical scholia"—explanatory notes intended for use in a future edition of the Principia—reveal his knowledge of pre-Socratic philosophy; he read the Fathers of the Church even more deeply. Newton sought to reconcile Greek mythology and record with the Bible, considered the prime authority on the early history of mankind. In his work on chronology he undertook to make Jewish and pagan dates compatible, and to fix them absolutely from an astronomical argument about the earliest constellation figures devised by the Greeks. He put the fall of Troy at 904 BC, about 500 years later than other scholars; this was not well received. VII RELIGIOUS CONVICTIONS AND PERSONALITY Newton also wrote on Judaeo-Christian prophecy, whose decipherment was essential, he thought, to the understanding of God. His book on the subject, which was reprinted well into the Victorian Age, represented lifelong study. Its message was that Christianity went astray in the 4th century AD, when the first Council of Nicaea propounded erroneous doctrines of the nature of Christ. The full extent of Newton's unorthodoxy was recognized only in the present century: but although a critic of accepted Trinitarian dogmas and the Council of Nicaea, he possessed a deep religious sense, venerated the Bible and accepted its account of creation. In late editions of his scientific works he expressed a strong sense of God's providential role in nature. VIII PUBLICATIONS Newton published an edition of Geographia generalis by the German geographer Varenius in 1672. His own letters on optics appeared in print from 1672 to 1676. Then he published nothing until the Principia (published in Latin in 1687; revised in 1713 and 1726; and translated into English in 1729). This was followed by Opticks in 1704; a revised edition in Latin appeared in 1706. Posthumously published writings include The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728), The System of the World (1728), the first draft of Book III of the Principia, and Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St John (1733). Contributed By:

英国伟大的物理学家、数学家、天文学家。恩格斯说：“牛顿由于发现了万有引力定律而创立了天文学，由于进行光的分解而创立了科学的光学，由于创立了二项式定理和无限理论而创立了科学的数学，由于认识了力学的本性而创立了科学的力学。”的确，牛顿在自然科学领域里作了奠基性的贡献，堪称科学巨匠。 牛顿出生于英国北部林肯郡的一个农民家庭。1661年考上剑桥大学特里尼蒂学校，1665年毕业，这时正赶上鼠疫，牛顿回家避疫两年，期间几乎考虑了他一生中所研究的各个方面，特别是他一生中的几个重要贡献：万有引力定律、经典力学、微积分和光学。 牛顿发现万有引力定律，建立了经典力学，他用一个公式将宇宙中最大天体的运动和最小粒子的运动统一起来。宇宙变得如此清晰：任何一个运动都不是无故发生，都是长长的一系列因果链条中的一个状态、一个环节，是可以精确描述的。人们打破几千年来神的意志统治世界的思想，开始相信没有任何东西是智慧所不能确切知道的。相比于他的理论，牛顿更伟大的贡献是使人们从此开始相信科学。 牛顿是一个远远超过那个时代所有人智慧的科学巨人，他对真理的探索是如此痴迷，以至于他的理论成果都是在别人的敦促下才公诸于世的，对牛顿来说创造本身就是最大的乐趣。 British great physicist, mathematician, astronomer.The boon space Si say:"Newton established astronomy because of discovering gravitational theory, because of carry on light of resolve but established the optics of science, established mathematics of science because of establishing binomial equation axioms and infinite theories, established the mechanics of science because of knowing the man's natural character of the mechanics."Really, Newton made to lay foundation stone sexual contribution in the natural science realm and be rated as science huge Jiang. Newton was born at a farmer family of Lincolnshire in British the north.In 1661 pass examination Cambridge university the inside Ni Di a school especially, graduate in 1665, at this time just in time plague, Newton goes home to avoid epidemic disease for two years, the period almost considered his whole life in each aspect study, especially he wins from cradle to the grave of a few major contributions:Gravitational theory, classic mechanics, calculus and optics. Newton discovers gravitational theory, built up classic mechanics, he uses a formula the biggest ephemeris sport in the cosmos and minimum grain sport of the son unify.The cosmos becomes thus clear:All of whichever sports are to without cause take place, is all long long of a series of cause and effect chain be an appearance, a link within, is can accurate description.People break several thoughts that the wills of thousand in the last years absolute beings rule world, start believe there is no thing is can't be accurate by intelligence knowing of.Compare at his ories, Newton greater contribution makes people from now on start believe science. Newton is 1 far far above the wise science giant of the in those days owner, his quest to the truth is a such Chi fan, with as for all of his ories results just reveal to the public under the urge sincerely of other people and say that the creation is the biggest fun to Newton.参考百度 希望能帮助你！

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