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语言学是对语言的系统研究,对于一个学习英语的人来说,应该懂一点语言学的知识,它可以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用,有助于更好的学习语言,下面介绍一点语言学知识. I. Introduction 1. What is Language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 2. What is Linguistics(语言学) Linguistics is the scientific study of language. 3.Some Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics 3.1 Speech and Writing One general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have. 3.2 Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性) A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior. 3.3 Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) Studies The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. 3.4 Langue(语言) and Parole(言语) This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue. 3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行为) Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声). 4.The Scope of Linguistics General linguistics is the study of language as a whole. Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages. Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words. Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences. Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language. Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages. Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind. Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes. Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man. Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings. Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics. Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer. II. Phonetics(语音学） 1. scope of phonetics Speech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics: Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学）we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate(协调） in the process. Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学）we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(调节） by the ear, the auditory nerve(神经） and the brain. Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学） we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted（传送） between mouth and ear. 2. The vocal organs The vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream,(气流发生器官） the producer of voice（声音发生器官） and the resonating cavities.（声音共振器官） 3. Consonants(辅音） Places of articulation(发音部位）: bilabial,(双唇） Labiodentals,（唇齿） dental,（齿） alveolar,（齿龈） retroflex,（卷舌） palate-alveolar,（上齿龈） palatal,（上颚） velar,（软腭） uvular,（小舌） glottal(声门） Manners of articulation: plosive,（暴破） nasal,（鼻音） trill,（颤音） lateral,（边音） fricative,（摩擦） approximant,（近似音） affricate（破擦） 4. Vowels (元音） The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded) III. Phonology（音韵学） 1. phonemes(音素）：a distinctive(有区别的） sound in a language. 2. Allophones(音位变体）：The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme. 3. Minimal pairs(最小对立体）： word forms which differ from each other only by one sound. 4. Free variation (自由变异）：If two sounds occurring in the same environment(环境）, they does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word. 5. Complementary distribution(补充分类）：Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occur in the same environment 6.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位）：the study of phonological properties(性质） of units lager than the segment-phoneme. They are syllable(音节）, stress,（重音） word stress, sentence stress. pitch （音调）and intonation（语调）. IV. Morphology（词法） 1. inflection(构形法）：the grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.(屈折词缀） 2. Word-formation(构词）：the processes(过程） of word variations signaling lexical relationships.（表明词法关系） They are compound(合成）and derivation (派生）. 3. Morpheme(词素）： the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content. 4. Allomorph(同质异象变体）： some morphemes have considerable variation, for instance, alternate shapes or phonetic forms. 5. Types of morphemes: They are roots,(词根） affix（词缀） and stem（词干）. 6. Lexicon(语言词汇）：in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary. 7. Closed-class words(封闭性） and open-class words(开放性）：the former whose membership is fixed or limited and the latter whose membership is in principle(实际上） indefinite or unlimited. 8. Word class(词性）：It displays a wider range of more precisely defined classes. 9. Lexeme(词位）：the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units. 10. Idiom(习语,成语）：Most phrasal lexemes are idioms. It is especially true for a sequence of words(词序） which is semantically（语义上） and often syntactically(句法上） restricted.（限制） 11. Collocation(搭配）： the habitual(习惯的） co-occurrences （同时出现）of individual lexical items. V. Syntax (句法） 1. Positional relation or word order（词序）：the sequential(顺序） arrangement of words in a language. 2. Construction or constituent (句子结构）： the overall process of internal (内部）organization of a grammatical unit . 3. Syntactic function(句法功能）： the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. The names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicates, modifiers,(修饰语） complements（补语）, etc. 4. Category(范畴）：It refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. The categories of the noun include number, gender, case and countability. 5. Phrase: a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clause. 6. Clause: a group of words with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence. 7. Sentence: It is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought. VI. Semantics 1. Conceptualism or mentalism (概念主义）：Following F. De Saussure(索学尔）'s "sign" theory, the linguistic sign is said to consist of a signifier （所指）and signified（被指）, i.e., a sound image and a concept, liked by a psychological（心理的） "associative" bond.（相关联系） 2. Mechanism(机械主义）：Some linguists, Bloomfield,(布鲁费尔德） for example, turned to science to counter（反）-act the precious theories and this leads to what call the mechanistic approach（方法）. The nature of this theory has nothing to do with the scientific study of mental phenomena.（智力现象） 3. Contextualism （语境主义）：It is based on the presumption(假定） that one can derive meaning from or reduce it to observable context. 4. Behaviorism (行为主义）：Behaviourists attempt to define (定义）the meaning of a language form as "the situation(情景） in which the speaker utters（说话） it and the response（反应） it calls forth in the hearer." 5. functionalism (功能主义）：Functionalists as represented (代表）by the Prague school（布拉格学派） linguists and neo-Firthian （新弗斯）linguists, approach the problem from an entirely new orientation（方法）. They argue（争辩） that meaning could only be interpreted（解释） from its use or function in social life. 6. Sense relationships: While reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc.,and the non-linguistic world of experience, sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves. They include synonymy(同义词）,antonymy(反义词）,hyponymy(下层次）Polysemy(一词多义）and Homonymy (同音异义词） 7. Semantic analysis: It includes 1) componential（成分） analysis which defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.(意义成分）2) predication (表述）analysis in which the meaning of a sentence is not merely the sum of the meanings of the words which compose it. 3) relational components in which the semantic analysis of some words presents a complicated picture, because they show relations between two and perhaps more terms. VII. Language Variation (语言变化） 1. Lexical change(词汇的变化）：changes in lexis. 2. Invention: (新造词）new entities. 3. Compounding:(合成词）New words are sometimes constructed by combining two old words. 4. Blending: (混合词）：It is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root, or by joining the initial parts of the two roots. 5. Abbreviation or clipping:(缩写）A new word is created by cutting the final part or cutting the initial part. 6. acronym:(取首字母的缩写词）It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified (修饰） headword. 7. Metanalysis:(再分化）It refers to a process through which a division is made where there were note before. 8. Back-formation:(逆构词） It refers to an abnormal(非正常） type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting(去掉） an imagined affix from a longer form already present in the language. 9. Analogical creation:(类比造词）It can account for（说明） the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation(结合） of some English verbs. 10. Borrowing（借用）：English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. 11. Phonological change(音变）：It is related to language variation in the phonological system of language. It includes loss,(省音） addition,（加音） assimilation,（ 同化）dissimilation.（异化） 12. Grammatical change: Changes in both morphology（词法） and syntax（句法） are listed under this heading. 13. Semantic change:(语义变化）It includes broadening,（语义扩大） narrowing,（语义缩小） meaning shift,（意义转化） class shift（词性转换） and folk etymology.（词源变化） 14. Orthographic change ：(正字法）Changes can also be found at the graphetic level.
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约翰•鲁珀特•弗斯（John Rupert Firth）弗斯（1890－1960）从1938年开始在伦敦大学的东方与非洲研究学院教授语音学和语言学，1944年成为英国第一任语言学教授。由于弗斯长期在伦敦大学任教，所以以弗斯为首的语言学派常被称为“伦敦学派”。弗斯发扬了英国语音学家亨利•斯威特（Henry Sweet）的传统，创造了韵律分析（prosodic analysis）；然后又继承了波兰人类学家马林诺夫斯基（Bronislaw Malinowski）的“情境主义”（contextualism）的概念，创造了新的语义理论；受索绪尔的影响，他提出了“结构”和“系统”的概念。弗斯的韵律分析法，也称韵律音位学（prosodic phonology），是他在1948年伦敦语文学会上宣读的《语音和韵律成分》一文中提出的。弗斯的韵律分析有自己的特点，它不仅研究音调、重音、连音等现象，而且研究诸如腭化、鼻化和圆唇化等现象，并试图把语音学和语法学联系起来。弗斯是第一个全面、深入地论述韵律分析的人，他的韵律分析法主要有以下两个特点：1）区分了组合关系和聚合关系，呈现聚合关系的单位是系统单位（systematic items）,呈现组合关系的单位是结构性单位（structural items）；2）提出了“多系统”（polysystematic）概念，来反对“单系统”（monosystematic）概念。传统音位学把不同情况造成的音位变体归为一个音位，说它们是互补分布（complementary distribution）。例如，英语音位/k/就有两个变体，在key中，[kh]有送气特征，而在school中，[k]没有送气特征。这两种变化叫做互补分布，都属于/k/这一个音位，这叫单系统。弗斯认为，这些语境引起的发音特征说明了有关语境的特点，应该把它们抽象出来，建立多个“准音位单位系统”（system of phonematic units）。弗斯既是传统的继承者, 又是新理论的创立者。在索绪尔的影响下, 他认为语言包括“结构”(structure) 和“系统”(system ) 两个要素。结构是语言成分的组合排列（syntagmatic ordering of elements），而系统则是一组聚合性单位（a set of paradigmatic units），这些单位能在结构里的一个位置上互相代替。因此，结构是横向的，系统是纵向的：系结 构统在语法层面上，下面四句的结构是相同的：Tom loved Mary.Tom kissed Mary.Tom liked Mary.Tom missed Mary.它们都是“主语＋谓语＋宾语”结构。其中的动词loved, kissed, liked, missed构成一个系统，都是动词系统成员。在波兰人类学家马林诺夫斯基的影响下, 弗斯坚持研究语言要注意它的“社会功能部分”(sociological component), 认为语言乃人类生活的一种方式, 并非仅仅是一套约定俗成的符号和信号, 因为我们生活下去, 就得学习下去, 一步步学会各种语言形式来作为立足社会的条件。语言是做事情的方式, 是让别人做事的方式, 是一种行为方式, 是迫使别人行动的方式, 是一种生活方式。弗斯既反对唯理主义把语言看成先天的、自然的理论, 也不完全赞同行为主义把语言完全看成是后天的说法, 通过学习得来的。他采取的是一种中间态度, 认为语言既有先天成分, 又有后天成分。因此, 弗斯认为语言学研究的对象是实际中使用的语言, 研究语言的目的是把语言中有意义的成分分析出来, 以便建立语言因素和非语言因素之间的对应关系, 因为人类经历的形式决定着语言意义的形式。弗斯对语言进行社会学研究是从意义着手的，主张“情境主义”的意义理论, 主张通过语言环境来定义意义, 认为意义孕育于具体情境之中。“语境中的功能”构成弗斯意义理论的中心内容，它是在马林诺夫斯基提出语境概念的基础上建立了一套独特的意义理论。弗斯认为, 词的意义是它的“情境的衬托”(the context of situation), 是词在社会的、文化的、精神的、物质的环境之中起的作用, 也就是它在由事物、情感、说话人和听话人的关系等共同构成的环境之中所起的作用。这种语境有内部关系和外部关系之分, 弗斯将其抽象为若干类别的观念。弗斯的语言学著述中尽管不乏极端说法和晦涩之处, 容易授人以柄, 但他毕竟对英国理论语言学的开创作出了应有的贡献, 他的某些论点对世界语言学的发展也有巨大的启示作用。
