我是五叶神
Architecture, the art of building in which human requirements and construction materials are related so as to furnish practical use as well as an aesthetic solution, thus differing from the pure utility of engineering construction. As an art, architecture is essentially abstract and nonrepresentational and involves the manipulation of the relationships of spaces, volumes, planes, masses, and voids. Time is also an important factor in architecture, since a building is usually comprehended in a succession of experiences rather than all at once. In most architecture there is no one vantage point from which the whole structure can be understood. The use of light and shadow, as well as surface decoration, can greatly enhance a structure.The analysis of building types provides an insight into past cultures and eras. Behind each of the greater styles lies not a casual trend nor a vogue, but a period of serious and urgent experimentation directed toward answering the needs of a specific way of life. Climate, methods of labor, available materials, and economy of means all impose their dictates. Each of the greater styles has been aided by the discovery of new construction methods. Once developed, a method survives tenaciously, giving way only when social changes or new building techniques have reduced it. That evolutionary process is exemplified by the history of modern architecture, which developed from the first uses of structural iron and steel in the mid-19th cent.Until the 20th cent. there were three great developments in architectural construction—the post-and-lintel, or trabeated, system; the arch system, either the cohesive type, employing plastic materials hardening into a homogeneous mass, or the thrust type, in which the loads are received and counterbalanced at definite points; and the modern steel-skeleton system. In the 20th cent. new forms of building have been devised, with the use of reinforced concrete and the development of geodesic and stressed-skin (light material, reinforced) structures.See also articles under countries, e.g., American architecture; styles, e.g., baroque; periods, e.g., Gothic architecture and art; individual architects, e.g., Andrea Palladio; individual stylistic and structural elements, e.g., tracery, orientation; specific building types, e.g., pagoda, apartment house.Architecture of the Ancient WorldIn Egyptian architecture, to which belong some of the earliest extant structures to be called architecture (erected by the Egyptians before 3000 B.C.), the post-and-lintel system was employed exclusively and produced the earliest stone columnar buildings in history. The architecture of W Asia from the same era employed the same system; however, arched construction was also known and used. The Chaldaeans and Assyrians, dependent upon clay as their chief material, built vaulted roofs of damp mud bricks that adhered to form a solid shell.After generations of experimentation with buildings of limited variety the Greeks gave to the simple post-and-lintel system the purest, most perfect expression it was to attain (see Parthenon; orders of architecture). Roman architecture, borrowing and combining the columns of Greece and the arches of Asia, produced a wide variety of monumental buildings throughout the Western world. Their momentous invention of concrete enabled the imperial builders to exploit successfully the vault construction of W Asia and to cover vast unbroken floor spaces with great vaults and domes, as in the rebuilt Pantheon (2d cent. A.D.; see under pantheon).The Evolution of Styles in the Christian EraThe Romans and the early Christians also used the wooden truss for roofing the wide spans of their basilica halls. Neither Greek, Chinese, nor Japanese architecture used the vault system of construction. However, in the Asian division of the Roman Empire, vault development continued; Byzantine architects experimented with new principles and developed the pendentive, used brilliantly in the 6th cent. for the Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.The Romanesque architecture of the early Middle Ages was notable for strong, simple, massive forms and vaults executed in cut stone. In Lombard Romanesque (11th cent.) the Byzantine concentration of vault thrusts was improved by the device of ribs and of piers to support them. The idea of an organic supporting and buttressing skeleton of masonry (see buttress), here appearing in embryo, became the vitalizing aim of the medieval builders. In 13th-century Gothic architecture it emerged in perfected form, as in the Amiens and Chartres cathedrals.The birth of Renaissance architecture (15th cent.) inaugurated a period of several hundred years in Western architecture during which the multiple and complex buildings of the modern world began to emerge, while at the same time no new and compelling structural conceptions appeared. The forms and ornaments of Roman antiquity were resuscitated again and again and were ordered into numberless new combinations, and structure served chiefly as a convenient tool for attaining these effects. The complex, highly decorated baroque style was the chief manifestation of the 17th-century architectural aesthetic. The Georgian style was among architecture's notable 18th-century expressions (see Georgian architecture). The first half of the 19th cent. was given over to the classic revival and the Gothic revival.New World, New ArchitecturesThe architects of the later 19th cent. found themselves in a world being reshaped by science, industry, and speed. A new eclecticism arose, such as the architecture based on the École des Beaux-Arts, and what is commonly called Victorian architecture in Britain and the United States. The needs of a new society pressed them, while steel, reinforced concrete, and electricity were among the many new technical means at their disposal.After more than a half-century of assimilation and experimentation, modern architecture, often called the International style, produced an astonishing variety of daring and original buildings, often steel substructures sheathed in glass. The Bauhaus was a strong influence on modern architecture. As the line between architecture and engineering became a shadow, 20th-century architecture often approached engineering, and modern works of engineering—airplane hangars, for example—often aimed at and achieved an undeniable beauty. More recently, postmodern architecture (see postmodernism), which exploits and expands the technical innovations of modernism while often incorporating stylistic elements from other architectural styles or periods, has become an international movement.
迪夫米米
以建筑、地景、城市规划三位一体，构成人居环境科学的大体系中的“主导专业”。下面我整理有关介绍建筑的英语 文章 ，希望大家喜欢!有关介绍建筑的英语文章品析 Do you think old buildings should be broken down, and give place for modernbuildings. How are the old buildings important in our society? With the rapid development of urbanization, many people advocate the demolition of oldhouses for the benefit of economic and social development. But others argue that we can’truin the traditional cultural heritage. Personally, I side with the former opinion. In the first place, the existence of old houses is an obstacle to modern urbanization bydamaging the image of the city. If they are replaced with modern skyscrapers, the city will takeon a new look. Take the Summer Palace in Beijing for example, Being government hasdemolished a large number of run-down the Summer Palace and constructed many newhousing buildings instead. In the second place, there is a potential danger to people living in old houses or evenpassers-by. If the houses are old enough to collapse in the end, where does the value ofculture or tourism exist? The tourists surely will not travel a long distance to see these so-called“culture heritage” at the risk of their lives. [More:www.cnielts.com] In the third place, replacing old houses with buildings can help to solve housing problems.It is well-known that China is a densely-populated country and people in urban areas onlyhave little housing space. Undoubtedly, replacing old houses with new buildings is a good wayto solve the problem. As mentioned above, I can draw a conclusion safely: It is irresistible to replace old houseswith modern buildings. At the same time, it is necessary for us to restore a limited number ofold houses for the sake of conserving traditional culture and attracting tourists. 经典有关介绍建筑的英语文章 1.The Portland Building, Portland, United States 美国波特兰大楼 File photo of The Portland Building. It is an accepted fact that the 1980s was the decade where taste went mad and decided tostart donning pattern sweaters and shoulder pads. However, that still doesn't explain whyjudges went with Michael Graves' design for a new civic building in the US state of Oregon. 众所周知，20世纪80年代是大众品味变得疯狂的十年，人们开始穿花样毛衣，戴垫肩。但这仍然无法解释为什么米歇尔•格列夫斯会设计出这栋美国俄勒冈州的民用建筑。 2.The Fang Yuan Building, Shenyang, China 中国沈阳方圆大厦 File photo of The Fang Yuan Building. Like most of the buildings on our list, this effort is distinctive if not distinguished. ArchitectCY Lee — who did a much better job with his Taipei 101 skyscraper over in Taiwan — wantedto fuse cultures by merging an old Chinese coin, complete with square cut-out, with acontemporary modern office block. 就像我们所列出的大多数建筑那样，这幢建筑的设计也很有特色，但并不杰出。它的设计师是CY李，其所设计的台北101大厦要好很多。设计师希望通过将中国古老孔方形状钱币与现代办公大楼相结合来达到 文化 相融的目的。 3.Petrobras Headquarters, Rio De Janiero, Brazil 巴西石油公司总部 File photo of Petrobras Headquarters. In a way you have to admire Petrobras for its audacity. After all, it is not every leading multi-national firm (the energy company is the biggest in Latin America) that chooses to house itsshowpiece headquarters in a building that's as awful as this. 你必须钦佩巴西石油公司的胆大。毕竟巴西石油公司不是领先的跨国企业(这家能源公司在拉丁美洲是最大的)，公司选择将其作为样板的总部安排在这样一座丑陋的楼里。 Fact: The building is at least in good company. Its next door neighbor is Rio De JaneiroCathedral, an equally controversial (read ugly) example of concrete brutalism. 实情：至少，这栋大楼旁还有建筑相陪。大楼旁边是里约热内卢大教堂，同样也是一座典型的富有争议的粗犷混凝土建筑。 关于有关介绍建筑的英语文章 Memorial Archway 牌坊 Memorial archway, different from either houses dwelled by humans or temples where gods are worshiped , is a unique kind of memorial architecture. 牌坊又称牌楼，它不同于民居，民居是住人的;也不同于寺庙，寺庙是供神的;它是一种门洞式的、纪念性的独特的建筑物。 Memorial archway derives from the Lingstar Gate. The first emperor of the Han Dynasty stipulated that the Ling stare should behonored first when worshiping the heaven. Ling Star Gate, first built in 1028, was rebuilt in theConfucian temple later in honor of Confucius. It is considered that people offered sacrifice tothe Ling Star in the Han Dynasty in order to pray for a fruitful year which has nothing to dowith Confucius and then the Chinese character "灵" was turned into "棂" again. From the SouthSong Dynasty on, especially in Ming and Qing dynasties, the Ling Star Gate was not only builtnear the suburb altar and the Confucian temple, but also near ordinary temples, tombs,ancestral shrines, office buildings, gardens or beside the streets and cross. It is not only usedto worship heaven and Confucius, but also in praise of noble acts and chastity. The purposeof the construction of the memorial archway con be classified into three types: symbolicarchway, archway of credit and morality,and archway of achievement. 牌坊是由棋星门衍变而来的。提星原作灵星，灵星即天回星。汉高祖规定：祭天应先祭灵星。到宋仁宗天圣六年(1028)，筑郊台(祭祀天地的建筑)外垣，设置灵星门。后移置于孔庙，用祭天的礼仪来尊重孔子。后来人们认为汉代祭祀灵星，是为了析求丰年，与孔庙元关。又改灵星为梗星。宋(南宋)元年以后，尤其是明清，这种建筑不仅置于郊坛、孔庙，还建于庙宇、陵基、祠堂、衙署和园林前或街旁、里前、路口。也不仅用于祭天、祀孔，还用于褒扬功德，施表节烈等等，于是灵星门不仅一变成为棋星门，而且再变为牌坊。牌坊就其建造意图来说，可分为兰类：一类为标志坊;二类为功德坊;三类是标志科举成就的。 Memorial is a symbol of lofty honor in the feudal society. As act of archway an promotion ofrender of immortal fame the construction of memorial virtues and is the highest in people'slives. history of archway pursuit With a time-honored building up southern Anhui has manywell-preserved memorial archway，archways enjoying equal reputation with the ancientshrines folk houses. 在封建社会牌坊是崇高荣誉的象征。树牌坊是彰德行，沐皇恩，流芳百世之举，是人们一生的最高追求。在安徽省南部有着悠久的修建牌坊的历史，许多牌坊至今保存完好。牌坊是当地古代建筑的"三绝"之一，与古祠堂、古民居鼎足齐名。
janesmonkey
StructureFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia"Structures" redirects here. For other uses, see Structure (disambiguation).Structure is a fundamental, tangible or intangible notion referring to the recognition, observation, nature, and permanence of patterns and relationships of entities. This notion may itself be an object, such as a built structure, or an attribute, such as the structure of society. From a child's verbal description of a snowflake, to the detailed scientific analysis of the properties of magnetic fields, the concept of structure is now often an essential foundation of nearly every mode of inquiry and discovery in science, philosophy, and art.[1] In early 20th-century and earlier thought, form[disambiguation needed ] often plays a role comparable to that of structure in contemporary thought. The neo-Kantianism of Ernst Cassirer (cf. his Philosophy of Symbolic Forms, completed in 1929 and published in English translation in the 1950s) is sometimes regarded as a precursor of the later shift to structuralism and poststructuralism.[2]The description of structure implicitly offers an account of what a system is made of: a configuration of items, a collection of inter-related components or services. A structure may be a hierarchy (a cascade of one-to-many relationships), a network featuring many-to-many links, or a lattice featuring connections between components that are neighbors in space.A formalized interpretation of the structure is compiled as semiotics of the structure.Contents [hide] 1 Types of structure1.1 Physical structure1.2 Biological structure1.3 Chemical structure1.4 Musical composition1.5 Social structure1.6 Data structure2 See also3 References[edit]Types of structure[edit]Physical structureIn engineering and architecture, a structure is a body or assemblage of bodies in space to form a system capable of supporting loads. Physical structures include man-made and natural arrangements. Buildings, aircraft, soap films, skeletons, anthills, beaver dams and salt domes are all examples of physical structures. The effects of loads on physical structures are determined through structural analysis. Structural engineering refers to engineering of physical structures.Built structures are a subset of physical structures resulting from construction. These are divided into buildings and nonbuilding structures, and make up the infrastructure of a human society. Built structures are composed of structural elements such as columns, beams and trusses. Built structures are broadly divided by their varying design approaches and standards, into categories including Building structures, Architectural structures, Civil engineering structures and Mechanical structures.[edit]Biological structureMain article: Biological organisationIn biology, structures exist at all levels of organization, ranging hierarchically from the atomic and molecular to the cellular, tissue, organ, organismic, population and ecosystem level. Usually, a higher-level structure is composed of multiple copies of a lower-level structure.[edit]Chemical structureMain article: Chemical structureChemistry is the science treating matter at the atomic to macromolecular scale, the reactions, transformations and aggregations of matter, as well as accompanying energy and entropy changes during these processes. The chemical structure refers to both molecular geometry and to electronic structure. The structural formula of a chemical compound is a graphical representation of the molecular structure showing how the atoms are arranged. A protein structure is the three dimensional coordinates of the atoms within (macro) molecules made of protein.[edit]Musical compositionMusic is an art form consisting of sound and silence expressed through time. The term musical form, a type of structure, refers to two related concepts:the type of composition (for example, a musical work can have the form of a symphony, a concerto, or other generic type)the structure of a particular piece (for example, a piece can be written in binary form, sonata form, as a fugue, etc.)[edit]Social structureMain article: Social structureA social structure is a pattern of relations. They are social organizations of individuals in various life situations. Structures are applicable to people in how a society is as a system organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships. This is known as the social organization of the group. Sociologists have studied the changing structure of these groups. Structure and agency are two confronted theories about human behaviour. The debate surrounding the influence of structure and agency on human thought is one of the central issues in sociology. In this context "agency" refers to the capacity of individual humans to act independently and to make their own free choices. "Structure" here refers to those factors such as social class, religion, gender, ethnicity, customs etc. which seem to limit or influence the opportunities that individuals have.[edit]Data structureMain article: Data structureIn computer science, a data structure is a way of storing data in a computer so that it can be used efficiently. Often a carefully chosen data structure will allow the most efficient algorithm to be used. The choice of the data structure often begins from the choice of an abstract data type. A well-designed data structure allows a variety of critical operations to be performed, using as few resources, both execution time and memory space, as possible. Data structures are implemented in a programming language as data types and the references (e.g. relationships, links and pointers) and operations that are possible with them. For structure tables and structure functions, see data structure.
贝贝花儿
描述上海近代建筑的英语作文：The features of a city are its buildings. As a factor most reflecting the times, society and nation,the buildings give overall and integrated expression to the national tradition, regional features spirit of the times and the social value. When you walk along the financial street of the Bund and the commercial street of East Nanjing Road and among the villas and gardens of Xujiahui, you can feel the history of prosperity of Shanghai. In the past 150 years since its opening in 1843, Shanghai has gradually developed into an international metropolis as well as an important economic, trade financial and cul-tural center of China. The special development op-portunities have made the western culture, local Shanghai culture and regional cultures of China collide, co-exist and become integrated and thus make Shanghai integrate the essence of the Chinese and Foreign cultures. In this way, Shanghai has become the place of origin for the modern Chinese con-struction culture and has a unique history of con-struction culture. The modern buildings of Shanghai are rich in styles, almost covering those of almost all the periods of the world construction history. It can be said that they constitute a living world construction history. You can see the new classicism buildings, Gothic building and compromise buildings, to the modernism buildings popular in Europe and America, decoration and art buildings and the new classicism Chinese buildings. The number of the styles, the complexity of the types and the grand scale of those builds are beyond match in this world. They give a comprehensive reflection of the evolution of the modern society and cities and also provide a key to learn the culture of Shanghai and the history of modern China. 中文翻译：漫步街头,寻找城市的足迹,最显而易见的是城市的建筑.建筑是文化领域中最具有时代性、社会性和民族性的因素,整体而又集中地体现了民族传统、地域特性、时代精神和社会的价值取向.徜徉外滩金融街.南京东路商业街、徐汇区的花园别墅群间,看到的是上海兴盛的历史.自1843年开埠以后,上海在150年中,逐渐发展成为一个国际化的大都市,成为中国重要的经济中心、贸易中心、金融中心和文化中心.特殊的发展际遇,使西方文化、上海本地文化和中国不同地域文化在此相互间冲撞、并存,融合,糅合了古今中外文化的精粹,令上海成为中国现代建筑文化的策源地,拥有独特的建筑文化历史. 上海的近代建筑有着十分丰富的内涵,在近百年的建筑中,几乎囊括了世界建筑各个时期的各种风格,简直就是一部活生生的世界建筑史.从新古典主义,哥特复兴式、折衷主义到盛行欧美的现代主义建筑、装饰艺术派建筑.复兴中国传统建筑艺术的中国新古典建筑等,各种风格数量之多、种类之繁杂、规模之宏大在世界上也是罕见的.它综合反映了近代社会和城市演变的历程,是解读上海文化、研究近代中国的一把钥匙.
优质英语培训问答知识库
