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显微镜是由一个透镜或几个透镜的组合构成的一种光学仪器。是人类进入原子时代的标志。用于放大微小物体成为人的肉眼所能看到的仪器。显微镜分光学显微镜和电子显微镜。光学显微镜是在1590年由荷兰的杨森父子所首创。现在的光学显微镜可把物体放大1500倍,分辨的最小极限达0.2微米。 显微镜-基本简介 显微镜大致可以分为光学显微镜和电子显微镜。 光学显微镜通常皆由光学部分、照明部分和机械部分组成。无疑光学部分是最为关键的,它由目镜和物镜组成。早于1590年,荷兰和意大利的眼镜制造者已经造出类似显微镜的放大仪器。目前光学显微镜的种类很多,主要有明视野显微镜(普通光学显微镜)、暗视野显微镜、荧光显微镜、相差显微镜、激光共聚扫描显微镜、偏光显微镜、微分干涉差显微镜、倒置显微镜。 显微镜有与光学显微镜相似的基本结构特征,但它有着比光学显微镜高得多的对物体的放大及分辨本领,它将电子流作为一种新的光源,使物体成像。自1938年Ruska发明第一台透射电子显微镜至今,除了透射电镜本身的性能不断的提高外,还发展了其他多种类型的电镜。如扫描电镜、分析电镜、超高压电镜等。结合各种电镜样品制备技术,可对样品进行多方面的结构 或结构与功能关系的深入研究。 显微镜被用来观察微小物体的图像。常用于生物、医药及微小粒子的观测。 显微镜的历史和发展 在17世纪,人们发现把两块凸透镜组合起来,能明显的提高放大能力,这种装置就是显微镜的前身。第一架真正的显微镜,是用一片凸透镜和一片凹透镜重叠起来组合而成,又称为复式显微镜,是荷兰眼镜匠詹森父子制成的,后来经意大利天文学家伽利略加以改良,显微镜才有了更佳的效果。 最初的显微镜很简单,只能放大50-200倍,以后又不断改进,逐渐发展。光学显微镜可以把物体放大到1500倍左右,能够观察到细菌的形状。 1932 年,德国科学家诺尔和鲁斯卡在柏林制成了世界上第一台电子显微镜。电子显微镜用电子束代替光束,用磁场代替透镜来观察细微物体。电子显微镜一下子把放大倍数提高到1万倍。到20世纪90年代,世界上已经研制出放大率200万倍的电子显微镜,人们利用它看到了物质的内部的精细结构。看见所有物质都是由一些肉眼看不见的极小极小的微粒组成的,发现了原子世界。 1983年,人们发明了扫描隧道显微镜。这种显微镜比电子显微镜更先进。自从扫描隧道显微镜发明后,世界上便诞生了一门以0.1纳米至100纳米这样的尺度为研究对象的新学科,这就是纳米科技。 显微镜-仪器结构 普通光学显微镜的构造主要分为三部分:机械部分、照明部分和光学部分。 机械部分 (1)镜座:是显微镜的底座,用以支持整个镜体。 (2)镜柱:是镜座上面直立的部分,用以连接镜座和镜臂。 (3)镜臂:一端连于镜柱,一端连于镜筒,是取放显微镜时手握部位。 (4)镜筒:连在镜臂的前上方,镜筒上端装有目镜,下端装有物镜转换器。 (5)物镜转换器(旋转器):接于棱镜壳的下方,可自由转动,盘上有3-4个圆孔,是安装物镜部位,转动转换器,可以调换不同倍数的物镜,当听到碰叩声时,方可进行观察,此时物镜光轴恰好对准通光孔中心,光路接通。 (6)镜台(载物台):在镜筒下方,形状有方、圆两种,用以放置玻片标本,中央有一通光孔,我们所用的显微镜其镜台上装有玻片标本推进器(推片器),推进器左侧有弹簧夹,用以夹持玻片标本,镜台下有推进器调节轮,可使玻片标本作左右、前后方向的移动。 (7)调节器:是装在镜柱上的大小两种螺旋,调节时使镜台作上下方向的移动。 ①粗调节器(粗螺旋):大螺旋称粗调节器,移动时可使镜台作快速和较大幅度的升降,所以能迅速调节物镜和标本之间的距离使物象呈现于视野中,通常在使用低倍镜时,先用粗调节器迅速找到物象。 ②细调节器(细螺旋):小螺旋称细调节器,移动时可使镜台缓慢地升降,多在运用高倍镜时使用,从而得到更清晰的物象,并借以观察标本的不同层次和不同深度的结构。 (8)转换器:可以在使用时转换不同倍数的物镜。转换物镜后,不允许使用粗调节器,只能用细调节器,是像清晰。 照明部分 装在镜台下方,包括反光镜,集光器。 (1)反光镜:装在镜座上面,可向任意方向转动,它有平、凹两面,其作用是将光源光线反射到聚光器上,再经通光孔照明标本,凹面镜聚光作用强,适于光线较弱的时候使用,平面镜聚光作用弱,适于光线较强时使用。 (2)集光器(聚光器)位于镜台下方的集光器架上,由聚光镜和光圈组成,其作用是把光线集中到所要观察的标本上。 ①聚光镜:由一片或数片透镜组成,起汇聚光线的作用,加强对标本的照明,并使光线射入物镜内,镜柱旁有一调节螺旋,转动它可升降聚光器,以调节视野中光亮度的强弱。 ②光圈(虹彩光圈):在聚光镜下方,由十几张金属薄片组成,其外侧伸出一柄,推动它可调节其开孔的大小,以调节光量。 显微镜 显微镜 光学部分 (1)目镜:装在镜筒的上端,通常备有2-3个,上面刻有5×、10×或15×符号以表示其放大倍数,一般装的是10×的目镜。 (2)物镜:装在镜筒下端的旋转器上,一般有3-4个物镜,其中最短的刻有“10×”符号的为低倍镜,较长的刻有“40×”符号的为高倍镜,最长的刻有“100×”符号的为油镜,此外,在高倍镜和油镜上还常加有一圈不同颜色的线,以示区别。 显微镜的放大倍数是物镜的放大倍数与目镜的放大倍数的乘积,如物镜为10×,目镜为10×,其放大倍数就为10×10=100。 电子显微镜结构 电子显微镜由镜筒、真空系统和电源柜三部分组成。镜筒主要有电子枪、电子透镜、样品架、荧光屏和照相机构等部件,这些部件通常是自上而下地装配成一个柱体;真空系统由机械真空泵、扩散泵和真空阀门等构成,并通过抽气管道与镜筒相联接;电源柜由高压发生器、励磁电流稳流器和各种调节控制单元组成。 电子透镜 电子透镜是电子显微镜镜筒中最重要的部件,它用一个对称于镜筒轴线的空间电场或磁场使电子轨迹向轴线弯曲形成聚焦,其作用与玻璃凸透镜使光束聚焦的作用相似,所以称为电子透镜。现代电子显微镜大多采用电磁透镜,由很稳定的直流励磁电流通过带极靴的线圈产生的强磁场使电子聚焦。 电子枪 电子枪是由钨丝热阴极、栅极和阴极构成的部件。它能发射并形成速度均匀的电子束,所以加速电压的稳定度要求不低于万分之一。 显微镜-成像原理 光学显微镜成像原理 当把待观察物体放在物镜焦点外侧靠近焦点处时,在物镜后所成的实像恰在目镜焦点内侧靠近焦点处,经目镜再次放大成一虚像。观察到的是经两次放大后的倒立虚像。 电子显微镜成像原理 电子显微镜是根据电子光学原理,用电子束和电子透镜代替光束和光学透镜,使物质的细微结构在非常高的放大倍数下成像的仪器。电子显微镜的分辨能力以它所能分辨的相邻两点的最小间距来表示。20世纪70年代,透射式电子显微镜的分辨率约为0.3纳米(人眼的分辨本领约为0.1毫米)。现在电子显微镜最大放大倍率超过300万倍,而光学显微镜的最大放大倍率约为2000倍,所以通过电子显微镜就能直接观察到某些重金属的原子和晶体中排列整齐的原子点阵。显微镜-修理维护显微镜的维护 1、经常性的维护 (1)防潮如果室内潮湿,光学镜片就容易生霉、生雾。镜片一旦生霉,很难除去。显微镜内部的镜片由于不便擦拭,潮湿对其危害性更大。机械零件受潮后,容易生锈。为了防潮,存放显微镜时,除了选择干燥的房间外,存放地点也应离墙、离地、远离湿源。显微镜箱内应放置1~2袋硅胶作干燥剂。并经常对硅胶进行烘烤。在其颜色变粉红后,应及时烘烤,烘烤后再继续使用。 (2)防尘光学元件表面落入灰尘,不仅影响光线通过,而且经光学系统放大后,会生成很大的污斑,影响观察。灰尘、砂粒落入机械部分,还会增加磨损,引起运动受阻,危害同样很大。因此,必须经常保持显微镜的清洁。 (3)防腐蚀显微镜不能和具有腐蚀性的化学试剂放在一起。如硫酸、盐酸、强碱等。 (4)防热防热的目的主要是为了避免热胀冷缩引起镜片的开胶与脱落。 2、光学系统的擦拭 平时对显微镜的各光学部分的表面,用干净的毛笔清扫或用擦镜纸擦拭干净即行。在镜片上有抹不掉的污物、油渍或手指印时,镜片生霉、生雾以及长期停用后复用时,都需要先进行擦拭再使用。 (1)擦拭范围目镜和聚光镜允许拆开擦拭。物镜因结构复杂,装配时又要专门的仪器来校正才能恢复原有的精度,故严禁拆开擦拭。 拆卸目镜和聚光镜时,要注意以下几点: a、小心谨慎。 b、拆卸时,要标记各元件的相对位置(可在外壳上划线作标记)、相对顺序和镜片的正反面,以防重装时弄错。 c、操作环境应保持清洁、干燥。拆卸目镜时,只要从两端旋出上下两块透镜即可。目镜内的视场光栏不能移动。否则,会使视场界线模糊。聚光镜旋开后严禁进一步分解其上透镜。因其上透镜是油浸的,出厂时经过良好的密封,再分解会破坏它的密封性能而损坏。 2.擦拭方法先用干净的毛笔或吹风球除去镜片表面的灰尘。然后用干净的绒布从镜片中心开始向边缘作螺旋形单向运动。擦完一次把绒布换一个地方再擦,直至擦净为止。如果镜片上有油渍、污物或指印等擦不掉时,可用柳枝条裹上脱脂棉,蘸少量酒精和乙醚混合液(酒精80%,乙醚20%)擦拭。如果有较重的霉点或霉斑无法除去时,可用棉签蘸水润湿后粘上碳酸钙粉(含量为99%以上)进行擦拭。擦拭后,应将粉末清除干净。镜片是否擦净,可用镜片上的反射光线进行观察检查。要注意的是,擦拭前一定要将灰尘除净。否则,灰尘中的砂粒会将镜面划起沟纹。不准用毛巾、手帕、衣服等去擦拭镜片。酒精乙醚混合液不可用的太多,以免液体进入镜片的粘接部使镜片脱胶。镜片表面有一层紫蓝色的透光膜,不要误作污物将其擦去。 3、机械部分的擦拭 表面涂漆部分,可用布擦拭。但不能使用酒精、乙醚等有机溶剂擦,以免脱漆。没有涂漆的部分若有锈,可用布蘸汽油擦去。擦净后重新上好防护油脂即可。 显微镜 显微镜 机械装置故障的排除 1、粗调部分故障的排除 粗调的主要故障是自动下滑或升降时松紧不一。所谓自动下滑是指镜筒、镜臂或载物台静止在某一位置时,不经调节,在它本身重量的作用下,自动地慢慢落下来的现象。其原因是镜筒、镜臂、载物台本身的重力大于静摩擦力引起的。解决的办法是增大静摩擦力,使之大于镜筒或镜臂本身的重力。 对于斜筒及大部分双目显微镜的粗调机构来说,当镜臂自动下滑时,可用两手分别握往粗调手轮内侧的止滑轮,双手均按顺时针方向用力拧紧,即可制止下滑。如不凑效,则应找专业人员进行修理。 镜筒自动下滑,往往给人以错觉,误认为是齿轮与齿条配合的太松引起的。于是就在齿条下加垫片。这样,镜筒的下滑虽然能暂时止住,但却使齿轮和齿条处于不正常的咬合状态。运动的结果,使得齿轮和齿条都变形。尤其是垫得不平时,齿条的变形更厉害,结果是一部分咬得紧,一部分咬得松。因此,这种方法不宜采用。 此外,由于粗调机构长久失修,润滑油干枯,升降时会产生不舒服的感觉,甚至可以听到机件的摩擦声。这时,可将机械装置拆下清洗,上油脂后重新装配。 2、微调部分故障的排除 微调部分最常见的故障是卡死与失效。微调部分安装在仪器内部,其机械零件细小、紧凑,是显微镜中最精细复杂的部分。微调部分的故障应由专业技术人员进行修理。没有足够的把握,不要随便乱拆。 3、物镜转换器故障的排除 物镜转换器的主要故障是定位装置失灵。一般是定位弹簧片损坏(变形、断裂、失去弹性、弹簧片的固定螺钉松动等)所致,更换新弹簧片时,暂不要把固定螺钉旋紧,应按本节“三(二)2”先作光轴校正。等合轴以后,再旋紧螺丝。若是内定位式的转换器,则应旋下转动盘中央的大头螺钉,取下转动盘,才能更换定位弹簧片,光轴校正的方法与前面相同。 4、聚光器升降机构故障的排除 这部分的主要故障也是自动下滑。排除方法如下: (1)直筒显微镜聚光器的升降机构:1.5.赛璐珞垫圈2.大头螺钉3.偏心式齿杆套4.齿杆6.升降手轮7.双眼螺母调整时,一只手用双眼螺母扳手插入手轮端面上的双眼螺母内,另一只手用螺丝刀插入另一端的大头螺钉槽口内,用力旋紧即可制止下滑。 (2)斜筒显微镜聚光器的升降机构:调整时,首先用螺丝刀把双眼螺母中间的驻螺2退出1~2圈,轴承垫圈3是与驻螺2压紧配合的,因此,也会跟着它一起退出,并脱离齿杆10的端面。然后,用双眼螺母扳手把双眼螺母1向调节座5旋进。同时,用另一只手转动手轮,进行试验,直到升降机构松紧合适,又能停留在任意位置上时,才停止双眼螺母的旋进。最后,再把驻螺旋入,使轴承垫圈接触齿杆10就行了。 这样调整之所以能够排除故障,是因为调节座5的内孔是锥形的。锥形轴套4在轴向有槽口,如图10-3-4所示。当双眼螺母1向里旋进时,将锥形套向里顶,使锥形套在前进时,槽口变小,内孔收缩,将齿杆10夹得更紧,加大了齿轮转动的摩擦阻力,从而制止自动下降。 显微镜-使用方法 显微镜 显微镜 低倍镜的使用方法 (1)取镜和放置:显微镜平时存放在柜或箱中,用时从柜中取出,右手紧握镜臂,左一手托住镜座,将显微镜放在自己左肩前方的实验台上,镜座后端距桌边1-2寸为宜,便于坐着操作。 (2)对光:用拇指和中指移动旋转器(切忌手持物镜移动),使低倍镜对准镜台的通光孔(当转动听到碰叩声时,说明物镜光轴已对准镜筒中心)。打开光圈,上升集光器,并将反光镜转向光源,以左眼在目镜上观察(右眼睁开),同时调节反光镜方向,直到视野内的光线均匀明亮为止。 (3)放置玻片标本:取一玻片标本放在镜台上,一定使有盖玻片的一面朝上,切不可放反,用推片器弹簧夹夹住,然后旋转推片器螺旋,将所要观察的部位调到通光孔的正中。 (4)调节焦距:以左手按逆时针方向转动粗调节器,使镜台缓慢地上升至物镜距标本片约5毫米处,应注意在上升镜台时,切勿在目镜上观察。一定要从右侧看着镜台上升,以免上升过多,造成镜头或标本片的损坏。然后,两眼同时睁开,用左眼在目镜上观察,左手顺时针方向缓慢转动粗调节器,使镜台缓慢下降,直到视野中出现清晰的物象为止。 如果物象不在视野中心,可调节推片器将其调到中心(注意移动玻片的方向与视野物象移动的方向是相反的)。如果视野内的亮度不合适,可通过升降集光器的位置或开闭光圈的大小来调节,如果在调节焦距时,镜台下降已超过工作距离(>5.40mm)而未见到物象,说明此次操作失败,则应重新操作,切不可心急而盲目地上升镜台。 高倍镜的使用方法 (1)选好目标:一定要先在低倍镜下把需进一步观察的部位调到中心,同时把物象调节到最清晰的程度,才能进行高倍镜的观察。 (2)转动转换器,调换上高倍镜头,转换高倍镜时转动速度要慢,并从侧面进行观察(防止高倍镜头碰撞玻片),如高倍镜头碰到玻片,说明低倍镜的焦距没有调好,应重新操作。 (3)调节焦距:转换好高倍镜后,用左眼在目镜上观察,此时一般能见到一个不太清楚的物象,可将细调节器的螺旋逆时针移动约0.5-1圈,即可获得清晰的物象(切勿用粗调节器) 如果视野的亮度不合适,可用集光器和光圈加以调节,如果需要更换玻片标本时,必须顺时针(切勿转错方向)转动粗调节器使镜台下降,方可取下玻片标本。 显微镜-注意事项 显微镜 显微镜 1、持镜时必须是右手握臂、左手托座的姿势,不可单手提取,以免零件脱落或碰撞到其它地方。 2、轻拿轻放,不可把显微镜放置在实验台的边缘,以免碰翻落地。 3、保持显微镜的清洁,光学和照明部分只能用擦镜纸擦拭,切忌口吹手抹或用布擦,机械部分用布擦拭。 4、水滴、酒精或其它药品切勿接触镜头和镜台,如果沾污应立即擦净。 5、放置玻片标本时要对准通光孔中央,且不能反放玻片,防止压坏玻片或碰坏物镜。 6、要养成两眼同时睁开的习惯,以左眼观察视野,右眼用以绘图。 7、不要随意取下目镜,以防止尘土落入物镜,也不要任意拆卸各种零件,以防损坏。 8、使用完毕后,必须复原才能放回镜箱内,其步骤是:取下标本片,转动旋转器使镜头离开通光孔,下降镜台,9、平放反光镜,下降集光器(但不要接触反光镜)、关闭光圈,推片器回位,盖上绸布和外罩,放回实验台柜内。 10、最后填写使用登记表。(注:反光镜通常应垂直放,但有时因集光器没提至应有高度,镜台下降时会碰坏光圈,所以这里改为平放) 显微镜油镜的使用 通型生物显微镜的放大倍数可达几百倍.一般真菌和酵母菌等微生物个体较大,用低倍物镜和高倍物镜即可得到良好的效果.但要看到经染色的细菌的形态和真核生物细胞的形态构造,最好使用油镜头. 油镜比干燥系高倍物镜的工作距离短得多,最短的只有0.1mm,且调焦程序又不同于干燥系物镜,操作时须特别细心,防止油镜压碎标本或损坏油镜. 油镜原理 由于细菌体积微小,故在细菌的形态学研究中,经常需要借助显微镜油镜,才能比较清楚地进行观察.因此,必须熟练地掌握油镜的使用及保护法. (一)油镜头的识别: 各接物镜的放大率可由其外形辨认,镜头长度越大,镜片直径越小,放大倍数大;反之,放大倍数小.油镜头长度大于低、高倍镜,镜头下缘一般刻有一圈黑线或白线,并刻有100×、1.25或oil等字样. (二)油镜的使用法: 1、使用显微镜油镜时,必须将显微镜端正直立桌上,不得将镜臂弯曲,使载物台倾斜,以免香柏油流溢,影响观察,污染台面. 2、调焦距: A、转动粗调节器使载物台徐徐上升(或使镜筒渐渐下降),直至油镜头浸没至油中.此时眼睛应从侧面观察,以免压碎标本片和损坏镜头. B、将标本片放载物台上,用标本推进器固定,将欲检部分移至接物镜下.先用低倍镜找出标本的位置,然后提高镜筒,在标本的待检部位滴镜油一滴,再换油镜观察. C、然后双眼移至接目镜,一面从接目镜观察,一面反方向缓慢地转动粗调节器(下降载物台,或上升镜筒),当出现模糊物象时,换用细调节器,转动至物象清晰为止. D、观察完毕,应先提高镜筒,并将油镜头扭向一侧,再取下标本片.油镜头使用后,应立即用擦镜纸擦净镜头上的油.若镜油粘稠干结于镜头上,可用擦镜纸蘸少许二甲苯擦拭镜头,并随即用干的镜纸擦去残存的二甲苯,以免二甲苯渗入,溶解用以粘固透镜的胶质物,造成镜片移位或脱落. 3、对光: 采用天然光为光源时,宜用平面反光镜;若用人工灯光时,则用凹面镜. 首先打开光圈,转动反光镜,使光线集中于集光器.可根据需要,上下移动集光器和缩放光圈,以获得最佳光度. 一般用低倍镜或高倍镜观察物象或用油镜检查不染色标本时,需下降集光器并适当地缩小光圈,使光度减弱;若用油镜检查染色标本时,光度宜强.应将显微镜亮度开关调至最亮,光圈完全打开,集光器上升至与载物台相平. 先在干燥系高倍物镜下找准被检物,并置于视野中央,然后升高镜筒约1.5cm,再把油镜头旋转至对准正下方.在玻片标本的镜检部位滴一滴浸液(镜头油),将头偏于一侧观察,下降镜筒,到物镜的前透镜与浸液接触时停止.继而从目镜里细心观察视野,旋转粗准焦螺旋,使镜筒缓慢地上升,刚出现不太清晰的物象时就换用细准焦螺旋,至物象清晰后进行观察. 初次使用油镜,也可按照干燥系物镜的调焦程序调节焦距.即先下降镜筒至物镜最接近盖玻片,但绝不能压在标本上,再上升物镜调焦.但此法有将浸液挤出去和造成空泡的缺点.若上调粗准焦螺旋时,镜筒已升到油浸镜头离开油滴,仍不能发现被检目的物,须重新调节. 油镜使用完毕,提升镜筒约2cm,把油镜转离光轴,先用擦镜纸擦去镜头上的大部分油,再用浸少量二甲苯的擦镜纸擦去镜头上的残余油迹,最后用干擦镜纸擦去镜头上的二甲苯.擦拭时要顺镜头的直径方向,不要沿镜头的圆周方向擦.玻片标本上的油也要进行清洁,即把一小张擦镜纸盖在载玻片油滴上,在纸上滴一些二甲苯,趁湿把纸往外拉,这样连续作三四次即可干净(如果是使用石蜡油,清洁时只用擦镜纸不必滴二甲苯). 油镜使用的镜头油为香柏油或石蜡油.因香柏油黏稠度较高,使用之后擦拭较麻烦,因而许多人采用石蜡油代替使用.滴浸液时,要尽量避免气泡的形成,如果形成了气泡,可用解剖针尖将气泡排在一边,以免影响观察. 由于细菌体积微小,故在细菌的形态学研究中,经常需要借助显微镜油镜,才能比较清楚地进行观察.因此,同学们必须熟练地掌握油镜的使用及保护法. 油镜的使用原理: 油镜的透镜很小,光线通过玻片与油镜头之间的空气时,因介质密度不同,发生折射或全反射,使射入透镜的光线减少,物象显现不清.若在油镜与载玻片之间加入和玻璃折射率(n=1.52)相近的香柏油(n=1.515),则使进入透镜的光线增多,视野亮度增强,使物象明亮清晰. 显微镜-显微镜的检测 1 概述 我们经常接触的是一般普通显微镜,它主要用于测量金属表面金相组织的测试,用途比较广泛,对企业,冶金等部门起着实验,研究不可缺少的重要作用。生产金相显微镜厂家比较多,型号,规格又不统一,所以对金相显微镜检测至今尚无国家、地方、部门检定规程,因此,我们依据国家标准对其进行检测。 (图)金相显微镜金相显微镜 2 对金相显微镜检测项目、方法和技术要求 2.1 物镜转换器定位误差 检具:(1)10倍十字目镜。 (2)分划值为0.01mm的分划尺,其任意两划线间的极限偏差为±0.005mm。 检测方法:在被检金相显微镜的转换器上装40倍物镜,目镜筒内放10倍十字目镜,对置于载物台上的0.01mm分 划尺调焦清晰,使分划尺上某一分划与目镜中十字划中心重合,然后转动物镜转换器向左,右多次定位(不少于3 次),观察0.01mm分划尺像的偏移,以最大偏移值作为检测值。 技术要求:不大于0.02 mm。 2.2 转换物镜时第一次像面中心偏: 检具:(1)10倍十字分划目镜。 (2)二字分划板。 检测方法:用10倍十字分划目镜和各放大率物镜在被检显微镜上进行检测,以偏的最大值作为检测值。 技术要求:由10倍物镜转换至其它放大率物镜时均不越出视场。 2.3 载物台旋转中心偏移: 检具:(1)10倍十字分划目镜。 (2)二字分划板。 检测方法:在被检金相量微镜上用10倍十字分划目镜和10倍物镜对置于载物台上的十字分划板调焦清晰,在转动载物台的同时移动十字分划板,使十字线中心的像趋向于最小的圆,以最小圆的直径作为检测值。 技术要求:显微镜第一次像的中心,最大偏移不大于0.2mm 。 2.4 十字分划目镜的十字线中心偏差: 检具:十字分划板。 检测方法:在显微镜上用10倍物镜和被检十字分划目镜对置于载物台上的十字分划板调焦清晰,并使十字分划板中心的像与十字分划板目镜重合,然后旋转十字分划目镜,以两十字线中心的最大偏移作为检测值。 技术要求:十字分划目镜的十字线中心应与目镜升圆轴线重合,其偏差为0.01mm。 3 检测中发现的问题 显像部分出现的问题比较严重。 3.1 光学系统: (1)视场模糊或视场一样不清晰。 (2)像发闪烁,反差不好。 (3)转换物镜时不到同焦。 (4)即使用高电压,视场也难以鲜明。 3.2 粗、微调部 (1)粗调控制钮旋转时发重。 (2)由于载物台自然下降或粗调的滑动使观察中的焦点离开。 3.3 双目镜筒: 双目镜筒的视场不一致。
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纯英文,凑合着看吧摘自wiki( microscopeFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia(Redirected from Electron Microscope)Jump to: navigation, searchThis article does not cite any references or sources.Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. (help, get involved!)Any material not supported by sources may be challenged and removed at any time. This article has been tagged since November 2006.The electron microscope is a type of microscope that uses electrons to create an image of the target. It has much higher magnification and resolving power than a normal light microscope, up to two million times, allowing it to see smaller objects and details.Contents [hide]1 History 2 Electron microscope manufacturers 3 Types 3.1 Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) 3.2 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) 3.3 Reflection Electron Microscope (REM) 3.4 Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope (STEM) 4 Sample Preparation 5 Disadvantages 6 See also 7 External links 8 References 8.1 Archives [edit] History A transmission electron microscope. An image of an ant from a scanning electron microscopeThe first electron microscope prototype was built in 1932 by the German engineers Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll. It was based on the ideas and discoveries of French physicist Louis de Broglie. Although it was primitive and not fit for practical use, the instrument was still capable of magnifying objects by four hundred times.Reinhold Rudenberg, the research director of Siemens, had patented the electron microscope in 1931, although Siemens was doing no research on electron microscopes at that time. In 1937 Siemens began developing the electron microscope, funding Ruska and Bodo von Borries to develop the instrument. Siemens also employed Ruska's brother Helmut to work on applications, particularly with biological materials. [1][2]Siemens produced the first commercial TEM in 1939, but the first practical electron microscope was built at the University of Toronto in 1938, by Eli Franklin Burton and students Cecil Hall, James Hillier and Albert Prebus.[3]Although modern electron microscopes can magnify objects up to two million times, they are still based upon Ruska's prototype and his correlation between wavelength and resolution. The electron microscope is an integral part of many laboratories. Researchers use it to examine biological materials (such as microorganisms and cells), a variety of large molecules, medical biopsy samples, metals and crystalline structures, and the characteristics of various surfaces.[edit] Electron microscope manufacturersMajor manufacturers include:Delong Group FEI Company - USA (formerly a division of Philips Electronics) FOCUS GmbH - Germany Hitachi - Japan JEOL, Inc. - Japan (Japan Electro Optics Laboratory) TESCAN - EU Carl Zeiss NTS GmbH [edit] Types[edit] Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)Main article: Transmission electron microscopyThe original form of electron microscopy, Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) involves a high voltage electron beam emitted by a cathode and formed by magnetic lenses. The electron beam that has been partially transmitted through the very thin (and so semitransparent for electrons) specimen carries information about the inner structure of the specimen. The spatial variation in this information (the "image") is then magnified by a series of magnetic lenses until it is recorded by hitting a fluorescent screen, photographic plate, or light sensitive sensor such as a CCD (charge-coupled device) camera. The image detected by the CCD may be displayed in real time on a monitor or computer.Resolution of the high-resolution TEM (HRTEM) is limited by spherical aberration and chromatic aberration, but a new generation of aberration correctors has been able to overcome spherical aberration. Software correction of spherical aberration has allowed the production of images with sufficient resolution to show carbon atoms in diamond separated by only 0.89 ångström (89 picometers) and atoms in silicon at 0.78 ångström (78 picometers) at magnifications of 50 million times. The ability to determine the positions of atoms within materials has made the HRTEM an indispensable tool for nano-technologies research and development in many fields, including heterogeneous catalysis and the development of semiconductor devices for electronics and photonics.Transmission electron microscopes produce two-dimensional images.[edit] Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)Main article: Scanning Electron MicroscopeUnlike the TEM, where electrons are detected by beam transmission, the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)[4] produces images by detecting secondary electrons which are emitted from the surface due to excitation by the primary electron beam. In the SEM, the electron beam is rastered across the sample, with detectors building up an image by mapping the detected signals with beam position.Generally, the TEM resolution is about an order of magnitude better than the SEM resolution, however, because the SEM image relies on surface processes rather than transmission it is able to image bulk samples and has a much greater depth of view, and so can produce images that are a good representation of the 3D structure of the sample.[edit] Reflection Electron Microscope (REM)In addition there is a Reflection Electron Microscope (REM). Like TEM, this technique involves electron beams incident on a surface, but instead of using the transmission (TEM) or secondary electrons (SEM), the reflected beam is detected. This technique is typically coupled with Reflection High Energy Electron Diffraction and Reflection high-energy loss spectrum (RHELS). Another variation is Spin-Polarized Low-Energy Electron Microscopy (SPLEEM), which is used for looking at the microstructure of magnetic domains [1].[edit] Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope (STEM)main article: Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy STEM[edit] Sample PreparationMaterials to be viewed under an electron microscope may require processing to produce a suitable sample. The technique required varies depending on the specimen and the analysis required:Cryofixation - freezing a specimen so rapidly, to liquid nitrogen or even liquid helium temperatures, that the water forms vitreous (non-crystalline) ice. This preserves the specimen in a snapshot of its solution state. An entire field called cryo-electron microscopy has branched from this technique. With the development of cryo-electron microscopy of vitreous sections (CEMOVIS), it is now possible to observe virtually any biological specimen close to its native state. Fixation - preserving the sample to make it more realistic. Glutaraldehyde - for hardening - and osmium tetroxide - which stains lipids black - are used. Dehydration - replacing water with organic solvents such as ethanol or acetone. Embedding - infiltration of the tissue with a resin such as araldite or epoxy for sectioning. Sectioning - produces thin slices of specimen, semitransparent to electrons. These can be cut on an ultramicrotome with a diamond knife to produce very thin slices. Glass knives are also used because they can be made in the lab and are much cheaper. Staining - uses heavy metals such as lead, uranium or tungsten to scatter imaging electrons and thus give contrast between different structures, since many (especially biological) materials are nearly "transparent" to electrons (weak phase objects). In biology, specimens are usually stained "en bloc" before embedding and also later stained directly after sectioning by brief exposure to aqueous (or alcoholic) solutions of the heavy metal stains. Freeze-fracture or freeze-etch - a preparation method particularly useful for examining lipid membranes and their incorporated proteins in "face on" view. The fresh tissue or cell suspension is frozen rapidly (cryofixed), then fractured by simply breaking or by using a microtome while maintained at liquid nitrogen temperature. The cold fractured surface (sometimes "etched" by increasing the temperature to about -100°C for several minutes to let some ice sublime) is then shadowed with evaporated platinum or gold at an average angle of 45° in a high vacuum evaporator. A second coat of carbon, evaporated perpendicular to the average surface plane is often performed to improve stability of the replica coating. The specimen is returned to room temperature and pressure, then the extremely fragile "pre-shadowed" metal replica of the fracture surface is released from the underlying biological material by careful chemical digestion with acids, hypochlorite solution or SDS detergent. The still-floating replica is thoroughly washed from residual chemicals, carefully fished up on EM grids, dried then viewed in the TEM. Ion Beam Milling - thins samples until they are transparent to electrons by firing ions (typically argon) at the surface from an angle and sputtering material from the surface. A subclass of this is Focused ion beam milling, where gallium ions are used to produce an electron transparent membrane in a specific region of the sample, for example through a device within a microprocessor. Ion beam milling may also be used for cross-section polishing prior to SEM analysis of materials that are difficult to prepare using mechanical polishing. Conductive Coating - An ultrathin coating of electrically-conducting material, deposited either by high vacuum evaporation or by low vacuum sputter coating of the sample. This is done to prevent the accumulation of static electric fields at the specimen due to the electron irradiation required during imaging. Such coatings include gold, gold/palladium, platinum, tungsten, graphite etc. and are especially important for the study of specimens with the scanning electron microscope. [edit] Disadvantages Pseudocolored SEM image of the feeding basket of Antarctic krill. Real electron microscope images do not carry any color information, they are greyscale. The first degree filter setae carry in v-form two rows of second degree setae, pointing towards the inside of the feeding basket. The purple ball is one micrometer in diameter. To display the total area of this fascinating structure one would have to tile 7500 times this image.Electron microscopes are expensive to buy and maintain. They are dynamic rather than static in their operation: requiring extremely stable high-voltage supplies, extremely stable currents to each electromagnetic coil/lens, continuously-pumped high-/ultra-high-vacuum systems, and a cooling water supply circulation through the lenses and pumps. As they are very sensitive to vibration and external magnetic fields, microscopes aimed at achieving high resolutions must be housed in buildings (sometimes underground) with special services. Newer generations of TEM operating at lower voltages (around 5 kV) do not have stringent voltage supply, lens coil current, cooling water or vibration isolation requirements and as such are much less expensive to buy and far easier to install and maintain.The samples have to be viewed in vacuum, as the molecules that make up air would scatter the electrons. Recent advances have allowed hydrated samples to be imaged using an environmental scanning electron microscope.Scanning electron microscopes usually image conductive or semi-conductive materials best. Non-conductive materials can be imaged by an environmental scanning electron microscope. A common preparation technique is to coat the sample with a several-nanometer layer of conductive material, such as gold, from a sputtering machine; however this process has the potential to disturb delicate samples.The samples have to be prepared in many ways to give proper detail, which may result in artifacts purely the result of treatment. This gives the problem of distinguishing artifacts from material, particularly in biological samples. Scientists maintain that the results from various preparation techniques have been compared, and as there is no reason that they should all produce similar artifacts, it is therefore reasonable to believe that electron microscopy features correlate with living cells. In addition, higher-resolution work has been directly compared to results from X-ray crystallography, providing independent confirmation of the validity of this technique. Recent work performed on unfixated, vitrified specimens has also been performed, further confirming the validity of this technique.[edit] See alsoWikibooks has more about this subject: The Opensource Handbook of Nanoscience and NanotechnologyCategory:Electron microscope images Field emission microscope [edit] External linksElectron Microscopy Supplies - Ladd Research Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope (ESEM) X-ray element analysis in electron microscope - Information portal with X-ray microanalysis and EDX contents (John H.L. Watson: VERY EARLY ELECTRON MICROSCOPY IN THE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, THE UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO — A PERSONAL RECOLLECTION) [edit] References^ DH Kruger, P Schneck and HR Gelderblom (13). "Helmut Ruska and the visualisation of viruses" (in English). The Lancet 355 (9216): 1713-1717. DOI:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02250-9. ^ Ernst Ruska (1986). Ernst Ruska Autobiography (English). Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-02-06. ^ MIT biography of Hillier ^ SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY 1928 - 1965 [edit] ArchivesRubin Borasky Electron Microscopy Collection, 1930-1988 Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. v • d • e Pathology Anatomical pathology - Clinical Pathology - Experimental Pathology Anatomical pathology Surgical pathology | Cytopathology | Autopsy | Molecular pathology | Forensic Pathology | Dental pathology Gross examination | Histopathology | Immunohistochemistry | Electron microscopy | Immunofluorescence | Fluorescent in situ hybridization Clinical pathology Clinical chemistry | Hematopathology | Transfusion medicine | Medical microbiology | Diagnostic immunologyEnzyme assay | Mass spectrometry | Chromatography | Flow cytometry | Blood banking | Microbiological culture | Serology Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_microscope"Categories: Articles lacking sources from November 2006 | All articles lacking sources | Anatomical pathology | Electron | Microscopes