英语语言学发展

看看这个地址,说的挺详细的

History of the English language From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from History of the English Language) English is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers from various parts of northwest Germany. Initially, Old English was simply a group of dialects reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms. One of these dialects, West Saxon, eventually came to dominate. The original Old English language was subsequently influenced by two successive waves of invasion. The first was by speakers of languages in the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic family, who colonized parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries. The second wave was of the Normans in the 11th century, who spoke a variety of French. These two invasions caused English to become "mixed" to some degree (though it was never a truly mixed language in the linguistic sense of the word; mixed languages arise from the cohabitation of speakers of different languages, who develop a hybrid tongue for basic communication.) Cohabitation with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant grammatical simplification and lexical enrichment of the Anglo-Frisian core of English; the later Norman occupation led to the grafting onto that Germanic core a more elaborate layer of words from the Romance branch of European languages; this new layer entered English through use in the courts and government. Thus, English developed into a "borrowing" language of considerable suppleness and huge vocabulary. Proto-English The Germanic tribes who would later give rise to the English language (the Angles, Saxons, Frisians, Jutes and perhaps even the Franks) traded and fought with the Latin-speaking Roman Empire. Many Latin words for common objects therefore entered the vocabulary of these Germanic people even before the tribes reached Britain: camp, cheese, cook, dragon, fork, giant, gem, inch, kettle, kitchen, linen, mile, mill, mint (coin), noon, oil, pillow, pin, pound, punt (boat), soap, street, table, wall, and wine. The Romans also gave English words which they had borrowed from other languages: anchor, butter, cat, chest, devil, dish, and sack. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, around the year 449, Vortigern, King of the British Isles, invited the "Angle kin" (Angles led by Hengest and Horsa) to help him against the Picts. In return, the Angles were granted lands in the south-east. Further aid was sought, and in response "came men of Ald Seaxum of Anglum of Iotum" (Saxons, Angles, and Jutes). The Chronicle talks of a subsequent influx of settlers who eventually established seven kingdoms, known as the heptarchy. Modern scholarship considers most of this story to be legendary and politically motivated, and the identification of the tribes with the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes is no longer accepted as an accurate description (Myres, 1986, p. 46ff), especially since the Anglo-Saxon language is more similar to Frisian. Old English Main article: Old English language The invaders dominated the original Celtic-speaking inhabitants, whose languages survived largely in Scotland, Wales, and Cornwall. The dialects spoken by the invaders formed what is now called Old English. Later, it was strongly influenced by the North Germanic language Norse, spoken by the Vikings who settled mainly in the north-east (see Jórvík). The new and the earlier settlers spoke languages from different branches of the Germanic family; many of their lexical roots were the same or similar, although their grammars were more distant, including the prefixes, suffixes and inflections of many of their words. The Germanic language of these Old English inhabitants of Britain was influenced by the contact with Norse invaders, which may have been responsible for some of the morphological simplification of Old English, including loss of grammatical gender and explicitly marked case (with the notable exception of the pronouns). The most famous work from the Old English period is the epic poem "Beowulf", by an unknown poet. The introduction of Christianity added the first wave of Latin and Greek words to the language. It has been argued that the Danish contribution continued into the early Middle Ages. The Old English period ended with the Norman conquest, when the language was influenced, to an even greater extent, by the Norman French-speaking Normans. The use of Anglo-Saxon to describe a merging of Anglian and Saxon languages and cultures is a relatively modern development. According to Lois Fundis, (Stumpers-L, Fri, 14 Dec 2001) "The first citation for the second definition of 'Anglo-Saxon', referring to early English language or a certain dialect thereof, comes during the reign of Elizabeth I, from a historian named Camden, who seems to be the person most responsible for the term becoming well-known in modern times Middle English Main article: Middle English For the 300 years following the Norman Conquest in 1066, the Norman kings and the high nobility spoke only a variety of French called Anglo-Norman. English continued to be the language of the common people. While the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle continued until AD 1154, most other literature from this period was in Old French or Latin. A large number of Norman words were assimilated into Old English, with some words doubling for Old English words (for instance, ox/beef, sheep/mutton). The Norman influence reinforced the continual evolution of the language over the following centuries, resulting in what is now referred to as Middle English. Among the changes was a broadening in the use of a unique aspect of English grammar, the "continuous" tenses, with the suffix "-ing". English spelling was also influenced by French in this period, with the /θ/ and /ð/ sounds being spelled th rather than with the letters þ and ð, which did not exist in French. During the 15th century, Middle English was transformed by the Great Vowel Shift, the spread of a standardised London-based dialect in government and administration, and the standardising effect of printing. Modern English can be traced back to around the time of William Shakespeare. The most well-known work from the Middle English period is Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales. Various contemporary sources suggest that within fifty years most of the Normans outside the royal court had switched to English, with French remaining the prestige language largely out of social inertia. For example, Orderic Vitalis, a historian born in 1075 and the son of a Norman knight, said that he only learned French as a second language. English literature starts to reappear circa AD 1200, when a changing political climate, and the decline in Anglo-Norman, made it more respectable. By the end of that century, even the royal court had switched back to English. Anglo-Norman remained in use in specialised circles for a while longer, but it had ceased to be a living language Early Modern English Main article: Early Modern English From the late 15th century, the language changed into Modern English, often dated from the Great Vowel Shift. English is continuously assimilating foreign words, especially Latin and Greek, causing English to have the largest vocabulary of any language in the world. As there are many words from different languages the risk of mispronunciation is high, but remnants of the older forms remain in a few regional dialects, notably in the West Country. In 1755 Samuel Johnson published the first significant English dictionary Historic English text samples [edit] Old English Beowulf lines 1 to 11, approximately AD 900 Hwæt! We Gar-Dena in geardagum, þeodcyninga, þrym gefrunon, hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon. Oft Scyld Scefing sceaþena þreatum, monegum mægþum, meodosetla ofteah, egsode eorlas. Syððan ærest wearð feasceaft funden, he þæs frofre gebad, weox under wolcnum, weorðmyndum þah, oðþæt him æghwylc þara ymbsittendra ofer hronrade hyran scolde, gomban gyldan. þæt wæs god cyning! Which can be translated as: Lo, praise of the prowess of people-kings of spear-armed Danes, in days long sped, we have heard, and what honor the athelings won! Oft Scyld the Scefing from squadroned foes, from many a tribe, the mead-bench tore, awing the earls. Since erst he lay friendless, a foundling, fate repaid him: for he waxed under welkin, in wealth he throve, till before him the folk, both far and near, who house by the whale-path, heard his mandate, gave him gifts: a good king he! (translation by Francis Gummere) [edit] Middle English From The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer, 14th century Here bygynneth the Book of the Tales of Caunterbury Whan that Aprill, with his shoures soote The droghte of March hath perced to the roote And bathed every veyne in swich licour, Of which vertu engendred is the flour; Whan Zephirus eek with his sweete breeth Inspired hath in every holt and heeth The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne Hath in the Ram his halfe cours yronne, And smale foweles maken melodye, That slepen al the nyght with open eye- (So priketh hem Nature in hir corages); Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages Glossary: soote: sweet swich licour: such liquid Zephirus: the west wind (Zephyrus) eek: also holt: wood the Ram: Aries, the first sign of the Zodiac yronne: run priketh hem Nature: Nature pricks them hir corages: their hearts [edit] Early Modern English From Paradise Lost by John Milton, 1667 Of man's disobedience, and the fruit of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste Brought death into the world, and all our woe, With loss of Eden, till one greater Man Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, Sing, Heavenly Muse, that on the secret top Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst ispire That shepherd, who first taught the chosen seed, In the beginning how the Heavens and Earth Rose out of chaos: or if Sion hill Delight thee more, and Siloa's brook that flowed Fast by the oracle of God, I thence Invoke thy aid to my adventures song, That with no middle Flight intends to soar Above the Aonian mount, whyle it pursues Things unattempted yet in prose of rhyme. [edit] Modern English From the United States Declaration of Independence, 1776, by Thomas Jefferson IN CONGRESS, July 4, 1776. The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America, When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation 英语属于印欧语系当中的日耳曼语文。印欧语系是全世界最大的语系之一，属于这个语系的语言地理分布最广，说这些语言的人数最多。早在1786年英国焚文学者咸廉·琼斯爵士(55T william J。nes)发表了他在语言学领域里的惊人的发现：梵文和希腊语、的拉丁语是同源的。这三种语言都是从原始的印欧语演变来的。 打开英语词典来看，大约百分之八十的词都是从其它语言借来的，绝大多数的外来语来自拉丁语，其中一半以上是通过法语借来的，另外省大量的词直接或间接来自希腊语。相当多的词来自斯堪的纳维亚语。还有一些词来自意大利语、的西班牙语、的葡萄牙语和荷兰语。少数词来自世界各地的其它语种。古英语的词汇约有五万到六万个词，而现代英语大词典收的词条足有六十五万到七十五万之多。但是英语最常用的词仍是英语的本族语，其中最常用的词有九个，它们是：and，have、的of，the，to，will和you。大量的外来语丰富了英语词汇，使英语变得极端灵活，变化多端。 英语的句子结构比较简单、的自然，合乎逻辑思维的自然顺序，也就是说，英语的词序word order比较自然。英语不象德语或俄语，句子结构没有那么复杂，词序没有那么多的倒装现象(inversion)。英语的“语法”性别和“天然”性别相一致，不象俄语、的拉丁语那样把所有的名词，按照“语法”性别，都分为阳性、的阴性和中性。这样，现代英语就免去了名词和形容词的复杂的格的变化，而德语和俄语仍大量地保存着这些变化。所以说，英语的第一个持点就是它的结构比较简单，因此比较明白、的易学。 英语词缀体系的历史演变 英语词缀体系的形成可以追溯到古英语时期。当时最重要的构词方法是复合法（compounding），据统计，在史诗《贝奥伍尔夫》（Beowulf）三千行诗句中，竟有一千零六十九个复合词。有些复合词中不重读的部分，渐渐失去独立地位，而演变为词缀，当时共有二十四个名词后缀和十五个形容词后缀，如：-dom, -hood, -ship, -ness, -th, -ful, -ish等。到了中古英语时期，发生了诺曼征服，诺曼法语一度成为英国统治阶级的语言，大批法语词涌入英语，改变了英语运用复合法作为创造新词的主要手段。随着众多的法语词被借入英语，一批法语和拉丁语的词缀被英语化，成为英语中构词的重要素材，如前缀dis-, en-, inter-, mal-, non-, pre-, semi-, sub-等，后缀-able, -acy, -age, -ician, -ise/-ize等。但与此同时，有些英语本族语的词缀反而废弃不用了。这一时期的英语词缀体系得到极大的发展和完善，派生构词的地位也得到进一步的确立。及至现代英语时期，文艺复兴运动、工业革命、英帝国向外扩张又使得英语大量借用法语、拉丁语、希腊语、意大利语以及几乎世界各地语言中的词汇，尤其是希腊语中的词根和词缀逐渐产生出与英语本族语的词根和词缀相结合的孳生力。至此，英语基本完成了词缀体系的全部工作。 从上述历史的演变我们可以看出，英语大量借入或同化其它语言的词缀以丰富自身的词汇，这固然是一件好事，但由于历史发展的迅疾和缺乏借词的规范化，导致泥沙俱下，其它语言中不合理的成分也随着借词渗入英语词汇。这是民族语历史发展的必然，是不以人们意志为转移的。

回答和翻译如下：发展趋势。The trend of development.

英语语言学硕士出路就业方向简述：英语语言学硕士求职时一般不受什么限制，可以说是你求职的万能福。英语语言学硕士可以从事如翻译、口译、旅游、传媒、新闻、法律、经济、金融等。 扩展资料 英语语言学硕士出路就业方向分析：英语语言学硕士求职时一般不受什么限制，可以说是你求职的万能福。英语语言学硕士可以从事如翻译、口译、旅游、传媒、新闻、法律、经济、金融等。英语语言文学专业生毕业主要从事高等、中等学校英语教学改革和教学研究及涉外工作和从事商务翻译工作，是应用性的高级专业人才， 就业质量相当不错，是一个高收入群体。据劳动人事部统计，英语专业毕业生的就业率一直在各专业中居于前10位。即使在近年来大学生就业普遍不景气的情况下，大多数院校英语专业毕业生的就业率仍然保持90%以上，就业前景乐观。毕业生在走上工作岗位后，大都能发挥他们的外语优势，受到学校、外事部门、公司企业等用人部门的'重视和欢迎。随着中国经济发展进一步加快，中国和世界的联系也会加强，在一个较长的时期内，英语专业仍会继续保持自己良好的就业前景。

英语专业的发展前景 在全球化的背景下，英语已经成为最广泛的国际语言。很多国家和地区都将英语指定为官方交流语言，而在各种世界性国际会议、论坛和学术研讨会，在国际商务谈判和国际商贸合同文本，以及在外资企业或合资企业工作中，英语已成为重要的交流工具。对于我国来说，随着世界经济一体化的迅速发展，特别是加入WTO及2008年北京奥运会召开以后，我国更加广泛地融入了国际社会，与世界各国在政治、经济、文化等领域的交流活动都日益频繁，与英语专业有关的行业如外贸、外交、海关、旅游、管理等涉外工作部门也都获得了前所未有的发展契机，使得我国对英语人才的需求数量越来越大。这些都为我们英语专业的学生提供了越来越多的就业和发展机会。 据统计，英语专业毕业生的就业率一直在各专业中居于前10位。即使在近年来大学生就业普遍不景气的情况下，大多数院校英语专业毕业生的就业率仍然保持90%以上，就业前景十分乐观。毕业生在走上工作岗位后，基本都能发挥他们的外语优势,经贸及翻译方向毕业生能在国家机关、外事、外贸、外企、各类涉外金融机构、商务管理公司、专业翻译机构、出版、新闻、旅游、高级宾馆酒店等部门，承担商务管理、商务翻译、外贸洽谈、经贸文秘、英语编辑、英语记者、驻外商务代理、涉外公关、涉外导游等工作；而IT及科技翻译方向毕业生也能在IT行业、三资企业、涉外企事业单位、研究所、情报所、新闻出版、政府机关等从事专业技术翻译、翻译管理、涉外行政管理、涉外工程管理、涉外市场销售代表等工作。英语专业毕业生还能在中学、中专、职高、技校和英语语言培训中心、大中专院校及科研部门等从事教学和科研工作。总之，英语专业的学生普遍还是能找到与专业相关的工作，发挥自己所长，实现自己的人生价值，并受到用人单位的一致好评。不仅如此，英语专业学生如果在学习期间有了新的兴趣和需求点，也能凭借英语专业的基础，轻松地转兼学其他专业，在工作中更加得心应手。而随着中国经济发展进一步加快，中国和世界的联系也会加强，在一个较长的时期内，英语专业仍会继续保持自己良好的就业前景。 那么社会对英语专业人才又有什么新的更高更具体的要求呢？高等学校外语专业教学指导委员会所作的调查显示，传统英语专业人才培养计划所培养的学生，由于只具备单一的英语技能，已经不能满足用人单位的需要，人才市场对单一类型的英语毕业生的需求日渐减少，而对复合型人才越加亲睐。在近年的就业市场上，企业往往偏好有理工科背景的英语专业的学生，要求英语专业学生不仅具备强硬的英语知识素养，会听说读写，还要求学生能掌握一定的数理科技知识。 适合的职业：毕业生适合于外经贸各部委、贸易公司、涉外机构、外商投资企业、跨国公司、金融国贸等单位的文秘、翻译、业务人员或行政管理人员等工作，同时也适合于各级政府涉外部门、各类外向型企业或公司以及银行、保险、海关、边防、高等院校及科研部门工作等工作。 职业对从业人员的要求：总的来说，现代社会对英语人才具有以下五个方面的要求：扎实的基本功，宽广的知识面，一定的专业知识，较强的能力和较好的素质。英语人才的核心仍是英语，英语学的既要扎实又要面广，应具有扎实的英语语言知识基础和较强的英语语言运用能力，即熟练掌握英语的听说读写。除此之外，英语专业学生还需要掌握其他某一专业的知识，如计算机科学、经贸、法学、 管理、传播、科技等，能熟练地用英语和所学专业知识从事翻译、商贸、法律、经济管理、公共管理、国际交流等领域工作。这种人才特征和市场定位迫切要求学生在英语学习中在原有的文学和语言学基础学习上增学有关外交、经贸和金融等方面的内容。 1， 对文秘工作人员的要求：文秘人员须具有马克思主义理论素养；创造性思维素；转换角色素养；占有材料素养；语言文字素养。2,对翻译人员的要求：要很刻苦，非常刻苦。必须有忍受孤独的能力。在你出名或有成就前，你必须忍受孤独，当别人在玩时，你唯一可以做的就是读书。要有非常广的中外文学作品阅读量。文笔要好，一般很少有五十岁前就成大器的翻译家，因为翻译这种东西，要字斟句酌。还要有广阔的胸怀和正确的世界观。要有勇于面对错误的能力，更要有努力不出错的品质！ 如果是同声翻译，需要出色的记忆力和大量的阅读面——话说回来，这些还是炼出来的，是苦练！对英语有感情有感觉，喜欢这门语言。中文英文都好口译要在不改变伊斯的情况下随机应变了解文化背景良好的职业道德，保持尊严；扎实的外语功底和随机应变的优点；对中外国家的文化了解；3，外向型企业或公司工作人员的要求：一是学习成绩优秀；二是社会实践丰富，这一点非常关键，如果一个学生有在企业中丰富的挂职或实习经历，他融入工作单位的速度就会很快；三是最好是学生党员或学生干部，因为上汽集团比较重视对后备干部的培养；四是有良好的外语功底，不少学生必须精通两门以上外语。一是专业对口、素质好，因为建工集团主要承担城市建设工作，必须有相关的专业知识；二是组织能力强、实践丰富；三是肯吃苦，因为建工集团许多岗位都要在户外工地工作，吃苦耐劳精神必须具备。一是核心能力，这里包括七个具体方面的能力：创新、团队协作、领导艺术、顾客为本、注重成效、变革发展、沟通技巧。诺华会对所有大学生进行这七项核心能力的评估。一个叫win，就是所谓的必胜的决心；第二个是e xecution ，就是又快又好的执行能力；第三个是t eam ，就是团队精神。有这三种特质的人就是我们所谓高绩效的人4，对教师的要求：具备全新的教学观念，掌握渊博的百科知识，运用灵活的教学方法，具有伯乐的鉴赏能力，尊重个体的价值，能运用合理的评价体系，大学本科英语专业 有教师资格证和英语专业八级证书5，对行政管理人员的要求职业、道德素质要求：有高度的敬业精神和良好的职业道德，严守机密、工作态度端正，作风严谨，勇于创新，注重实效。岗位要求：严格遵守岗位职责并执行公司的作息制度、劳动纪律、工作流程及规章制度，按章办事，有原则有变通；工作中要眼勤、耳勤、脑勤、手勤、腿勤，按时保质保量完成每次领导交办的工作任务时，积极友好配合其他部门做好协助工作，未经允许因协助其他部门而耽误工作时，以失职论过。仪容仪表要求：仪表整洁、淡雅妆容、正装上班，行为得体，举止大方。接待要求：对公司来访人员，应热情、主动、大方地做好问候和引见、接待工作；接待公司来访，不分来访者的职业与职位高低，均需礼貌、热情、主动做好接待工作，不仅要体现出对客户尊重和诚意，还要树立好公司良好形象。电话接听要求：接听电话注意文明用语，接听及时，一般铃响不应超过三声，如受话人不能接听，离之最近的人员应主动接听，重要电话做好接听记录。业务洽谈要求：与客户洽谈时，注意言辞恳切，灵活应变和保密意识，且做好相关文字记录；超出公司原则的业务事项或其他特殊情况，不得擅自作主承诺和给予相关答复，需向公司领导或部门负责人请示后执行。在这种社会需求和要求下，我作为英语专业的学生，首先应该时刻鞭策自己，努力学习英语方面的知识，不断巩固英语语言学基础并提升各方面英语专业的能力和素养，听说读写面面俱到，能用英语进行流利交流并学习用英语思考，摒弃中式英语的弊病，将英语信手拈来。同时作为英语专业经贸方向的学生，在掌握扎实的英语语言基础知识、较强的英语语言运用能力的同时，还应认真学习国际商务谈判、外贸企业管理、进出口业务等经贸方面知识，能够处理商务谈判、管理外贸企业、开展国际经济技术合作、进行跨国经营等对外经济和对外贸易活动。 总之，我应不断学习、熟练掌握对外经济贸易专业英语，掌握国际经济贸易的基本理论和方法，熟悉我国对外经济贸易的主要政策和法规，具有正确处理外贸文件和承担外贸洽谈业务能力、从事各类产品和技术进出口和进行国际技术经济合作工作的能力，以及分析和解决外贸企业经营问题、从事外贸企业管理的能力。只有不断提升自己，才能满足国家建设和社会发展的需求，也才能找到一份好的工作，以自己的专业知识实现自己的社会价值和人生价值。