厦门小鱼网
Human nature is the concept that there are a set of characteristics, including ways of thinking, feeling and acting, that all 'normal' human beings have in common.The soul is seen as the substantial form of the body (matter). The soul, as the substantial form, is what is universal, or common, to all humanity, and therefore, is indicative of human nature; that which differentiates one person from another is matter, which Aquinas refers to as the principle of individuation. The human soul is characterized as spiritual, immortal, substantial, and subsistent: it is the spiritual and vital principle of the human being, but is also dependent on the body in a variety of ways in order to possess these characteristics. Thus, no division is made between the "physical" and the "spiritual," though they are in fact distinct. This position differentiates Thomism from both materialism and idealism. Unlike idealism, it holds that the visible universe is not a mere shadow of a transcendent reality, but instead is fully real in and of itself.
唐唐sweet
Human nature is the concept that there are a set of characteristics, including ways of thinking, feeling and acting, that all 'normal' human beings have in common.The soul is seen as the substantial form of the body (matter). The soul, as the substantial form, is what is universal, or common, to all humanity, and therefore, is indicative of human nature; that which differentiates one person from another is matter, which Aquinas refers to as the principle of individuation. The human soul is characterized as spiritual, immortal, substantial, and subsistent: it is the spiritual and vital principle of the human being, but is also dependent on the body in a variety of ways in order to possess these characteristics. Thus, no division is made between the "physical" and the "spiritual," though they are in fact distinct. This position differentiates Thomism from both materialism and idealism. Unlike idealism, it holds that the visible universe is not a mere shadow of a transcendent reality, but instead is fully real in and of itself.人性的概念,有一组特征,包括思维方式,感觉和行动,共同的所有的“正常”的人。灵魂是身体的物质形式(物质)。灵魂,为物质形式,是普遍的,或是共同的,所有的人类,因此,象征着人性;,区分一个人从另一事,阿奎那指的是个体化原则。人类的灵魂是不朽的,其精神实质,,和存在的:它是精神的和重要的人的原则,但也依赖于以各种方式为具有这些特征的身体。因此,不分是“物质”和“精神之间进行,尽管他们实际上是不同的。这个位置区分托马斯主义的唯物主义和唯心主义。不同于理想主义,它认为宇宙是不是一个单纯的阴影,一个超越现实,而是完全真实的本身。
南宫亦忆
就人性论而言,理想主义(idealism)持乐观的态度,具有性善的思想,认为人们是追求和平的,纵然有时候会犯错,造成战争,但却能从经验中学习,藉此改变他们的行为,不再发动战争。而现实主义(realism),则主张人类的天性是丑恶且贪心的,喜爱权力,具性恶的思想,认为人们不懂从教训及经验中学习,而影响著政治行为。这两个不同的人性假说,是两种不同学说的基本根据,因此两者在其他主张中都持相反的观点。 其次,就国家政治的要求,两者都有所差别。理想主义认为政府应该是实施良好政治,他们所追求的,是要有道德标准的政府,要求良好统治的艺术。然而,现实主义则认为政府的行为是取决於外在环境因素,并非单是国家内部结构,国家并无好坏之分,要求的只是适当的行为,这些政治行为,与政治制度,文化背景和统治者的类型无关,只取决於外在因素。 再者,两者对战争、冲突都有不同的看法。理想主义认为战争是可以避免的,通过国际合作,如北约,联合国等,解决国际纠纷,又如国际法庭,处罚一些违反国际法的国家。理想主义者都相信合作和长久和平是可以实践的,透过国际组织和国际法来避免冲突,因此,军备是多余的。然而,现实主义是持相反主张,他们认为战争或冲突都是不可能避免的,无论是人类本性现实主义(human nature realism)、防御F实主义(defensive realism)或是进攻现实主义(offensive realism)都认为国际处於一个无政府状态,各个国家都关注自己国家的实力(power)与利益 (benefit),军备是必要的,故此冲突是不可避免的。当现实主义者面对国际危机时,会主张以谨慎的处理手法,透过了解,谈判,及让步来化解,并藉此避免严重的战争。因此,他们不认为和平是长久的,反之都是短暂而人为的。 此外,理想主义和现实主义的不同之处,还在於两者的基本追求及目标。理想主义追求道德(moral),认为国家都是以道德作为目标,每个国家都应有道德思想及行为,因此,都要求国际道德来维持国际和平。然而,现实主义则认为国家利益是最重要的,要求国家的生存空间及国家力量,但现实主义者并不否定道德,只要在不损国家利益的大前提下,他们都会追求道德,然若两者互相有冲突,便会舍弃道德,争取利益。此外,现实主义者更认为,国际道德其实无助於解决国际关系的问题,因此,他们不会将道德硬套在国际政治中。Reference:Foster, J. (2000). The Nature of Perception. New York: Oxford University Press
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