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要的是不是这个饿啊 引导定语从句的关系代词who,which有时可与that互换使用。但在下面情况,一般只用that。 一、当先行词为不定代词anything, everything, nothing, any, little, one, few, much, all, none等时。如: a.There isn't much that I can do. b.He is one of the few that can work it out in five minutes. 二、当先行词是形容词最高级或被形容词最高级修饰时。如: a.The book is the best that I have read. b.This is the biggest laboratory that we have ever built in our university. 三、当先行词是序数词或其被序数词修饰时。如: a. It is the third one that I've bought. b.This is the first place that I've ever visited. 四、当先行词被the very, the only等词修饰时。如: a.Is this the very museum that you visited the other day? b.This is the only book that I need at present. 五、当先行词包含了人和事物两方面的含义时。如: They talked of things and persons that they remembered in the school. 六、当先行词被same修饰,且指“同一物品”时。如: She is wearing the same dress that she wore yesterday. 七、关系代词在定语从句中作表语时。如: a.This is no longer the place that it used to be. b.He is not the man that he was. 八、当主句是以who,which开头的特殊疑问句或先行词是who时。如: a.Which is the book that he bought yesterday? b.Who that you have ever seen can beat him in回答者:弋吧啦 - 试用期 一级 4-27 19:17您觉得最佳答案好不好? 目前有 5 个人评价 80% (4) 20% (1) 其他回答共 1 条在这里 定语从句是由关系代词和关系副词引导的从句,其作用是作定语修饰主句的某个名次性成分,定语从句分为限定性和非限定性从句两种。 一、 限定性定语从句 1. that即可代表事物也可代表人,which代表事物;它们在从句中作主语或宾语,that在从句中作宾语时常可省略关系词,which在从句中作宾语则不能省略。而且,如果which在从句中作“不及物动词+介词”的介词的宾语,注意介词不要丢掉,而且介词总是放在关系代词which的前边,但有的则放在它原来的位置 2. which作宾语时,根据先行词与定语从句之间的语义关系,先行词与which之间的介词不能丢 3. 代表物时多用which,但在带有下列词的句子中用that而不用which,这些词包括all, anything, much等,这时的that常被省略 4. who和whom引导的从句用来修饰人,分别作从句中的主语和宾语,whom作宾语时,要注意它可以作动词的宾语也可以作介词的宾语 5. where是关系副词,用来表示地点的定语从句 6. when引导定语从句表示时间 〔注〕值得一提的是,表示时间“time"一词的定语从句只用when引导,有时不用任何关系代词,当然也不用that引导 By the time you arrive in London, we will have stayed there for two weeks. I still remember the first time I met her. Each time he goes to besiness trip, he brings a lot of living necessities, such as towers, soap, toothbrush etc. 7. whose是关系代词,修饰名词作定语,相当于所修饰成分的前置所有格 8. 当从句的逻辑主语是some, any, no, somebody, anybody, nobody, something, anything, everything或nothing时,常用there is来引导 二、非限定性定语从句:非限定性定语从句的作用是对所修饰的成分作进一步说明,通常和主句间用逗号隔开,将从句拿掉后其他部分仍可成立 1. which引导的非限定性定语从句来说明前面整个句子的情况或主句的某一部分 2. 在引导限定性定语从句时,that有时相当于in which, at which, for which或at which Attitudes towards daydreaming are changing in much the same way that(in which) attitudes towards night dreaming have changed. 人们对白日做梦的态度正在改变,这与人们对夜间做梦的看法的变化有非常相似之处。 I like the music for the very reason that(for which) he dislike it. 我出于某种原因喜欢这种音乐,而他恰恰与我相反。 We arrived the day that(on which) they left. 刚好我们到的那天他们走了。 3. 有时as也可用作关系代词 4. 在非限定性定语从句中,不能用that,而用who, whom代表人,用which代表事物. 一.定语从句及相关术语 1.定语从句:修饰一个名词或代词的从句称为定语从句,一般紧跟在它所修饰的先行词后面。 2.关系词:引导定语从句的关联词成为关系词 关系词有关系代词和关系副词。关系代词有that, which, who, whom, whose, as等;关系副词有where, when, why等。 关系词常有3个作用:1,引导定语从句。2,代替先行词。3,在定语从句中担当一个成分。 二.关系代词引导的定语从句 1.who指人,在从句中做主语 (1) The boys who are playing football are from Class One. (2) Yesterday I helped an old man who lost his way. 2. whom指人,在定语从句中充当宾语,常可省略。 (1) Mr. Liu is the person (whom) you talked about on the bus. (2) Mr. Ling is just the boy whom I want to see. 注意:关系代词whom在口语和非正式语体中常用who代替,可省略。 (3) The man who/whom you met just now is my friend. 3. which指物,在定语从句中做主语或者宾语,做宾语时可省略 (1) Football is a game which is liked by most boys. (2) This is the pen (which) he bought yesterday. 4. that指人时,相当于who或者whom;指物时,相当于which。在宾语从句中做主语或者宾语,做宾语时可省略。 (5) The number of the people that/who come to visit the city each year rises one million. (6) Where is the man that/whom I saw this morning? 5. whose通常指人,也可指物,在定语从句中做定语 (1) He has a friend whose father is a doctor. (2) I once lived in a house whose roof has fallen in. whose指物时,常用以下结构来代替 (3) The classroom whose door is broken will soon be repaired. (4) The classroom the door of which is broken will soon be repaired. (5) Do you like the book whose cover is yellow? (6) Do you like the book the color of which is yellow? 三.介词+关系代词引导的定语从句 关系代词在定语从句中做介词宾语时,从句常由介词+关系代词引导 (1) The school (that/which) he once studied in is very famous. (2) The school in which he once studied is very famous. (3) Tomorrow I will bring here a magazine (that/which) you asked for. (4) Tomorrow I will bring here a magazine for which you asked. (5) We’ll go to hear the famous singer (whom/that/who) we have often talked about. (6) We’ll go to hear the famous singer about whom we have often talked. 注意:1. 含有介词的动词短语一般不拆开使用,如:look for, look after, take care of等 (1) This is the watch which/that I am looking for. (T) (2) This is the watch for which I am looking. (F) 2. 若介词放在关系代词前,关系代词指人时用whom,不可用who或者that;指物时用which,不能用that;关系代词是所有格时用whose (1) The man with whom you talked is my friend. (T) (2) The man who/that you talked with is my friend. (F) (3) The plane in which we flew to Canada is very comfortable. (T) (4) The plane in that we flew in to Canada is very comfortable. (F) 3. “介词+关系代词”前可有some, any, none, both, all, neither, most, each, few等代词或者数词 (1) He loved his parents deeply, both of whom are very kind to him. (2) In the basket there are quite many apples, some of which have gone bad. (3) There are forty students in our class in all, most of whom are from big cities. 四.关系副词引导的定语从句 1. when指时间,在定语从句中做时间状语 (1) I still remember the day when I first came to the school. (2) The time when we got together finally came. 2. where指地点,在定语从句中做地点状语 (1) Shanghai is the city where I was born. (2) The house where I lived ten years ago has been pulled down. 3. why指原因,在定语从句中做原因状语 (1) Please tell me the reason why you missed the plane. (2) I don’t know the reason why he looks unhappy today. 注意:关系副词引导的从句可以由“介词+关系代词”引导的从句替换 (1) The reason why/ for which he refused the invitation is not clear, (2) From the year when/in which he was going to school he began to know what he wanted when he grew up. (3) Great changes have taken place in the city in which./where I was born. 五.限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句 限制性定语从句 非限制性定语从句 形式上 不用逗号和主句隔开 用逗号和主句隔开 意义上 是先行词不可缺少的定语,不能删除 是对先行词的补充说明,删除后意思仍完整 译法上 翻译成先行词的定语,“…的…” 通常翻译成主句的并列句 关系词的使用上 A.做宾语时可省略 B。可用that C.可用who代替whom A.不可省 B。不用that C。不用who代替whom 限制性定语从句举例: (1) The teacher told me that Tom was the only person that I could depend on. (2) China is a country which has a long history. 非限制性定语从句举例: (1) His mother, who loves him very much, is strict with him. (2) China, which was founded in 1949, is becoming more and more powerful. 要注意区分以下几个句子的不同 (1) His brother who is now a doctor always encourages him to go to college. 他那当医生的哥哥常鼓励他要考上大学。(他还有其他的哥哥) (2) His brother, who is now a doctor, always encourages him to go to college. 他的哥哥是当医生的,常鼓励他要考上大学。(他只有一个哥哥) 难点分析 (一)限制性定语从句只能用that的几种情况 1.当先行词是anything, everything, nothing (something 除外), few, all, none, little, some等代词时,或者是由every, any, all, some, no, little, few, much等修饰时 (1) Have you taken down everything that Mr. Li has said? (2) There seems to be nothing that seems impossible for him in the world. (3) All that can be done has been done. (4) There is little that I can do for you. 注意:当先行词指人时,偶尔也可以用who (4) Any man that/.who has a sense of duty won’t do such a thing. 2. 当先行词被序数词修饰 (1) The first place that they visited in London was the Big Ben. 3. 当先行词被形容词最高级修饰时 (1) This is the best film that I have seen. 4. 当形容词被the very, the only 修饰时 (1) This is the very dictionary that I want to buy, (2) After the fire in his house, the old car is the only thing that he owned. 当先行词指人时,偶尔也可以用who (3) Wang Hua is the only person in our school who will attend the meeting/ 5. 当先行词前面有who, which等疑问代词时 (1) Who is the man that is standing there? (2) Which is the T-shirt that fits me most? 6. 当先行词既有人,也有动物或者物体时 (1) Can you remember the scientist and his theory that we have learned? (二)关系代词as和which引导的定语从句 as和which引导非限制性定语从句,有相同之处也有不同之处。具体情况是: 1.As和which都可以在定语从句中做主语或者宾语,代表前面整个句子。 (1) He married her, as/which was natural. (2) He was honest, as/which we can see. 2. as 引导非限制性定语从句,可放在主句之前,或者主句之后,甚至可以切割一个主句;which引导的非限制性定语从句只能放在主句之后。另外,as有“正如……,正像……”的意思 (1) As is known to all, China is a developing country. (2) He is from the south, as we can see from his accent. (3) John, as you know, is a famous writer. (4) He has been to Paris more than several times, which I don’t believe. 注意:当主句和从句存在逻辑上的因果关系时,常用which (5) Tom was always late for school, which made his teacher angry. 3. 当先行次受such, the same修饰时,常用as (1) I have never heard such a story as he tells. (2) He is not such a fool as he looks. (3) This is the same book as I lost last week. 注意:当先行次由the same修饰时,偶尔也用that引导定语从句,但是和由as所引导的定语从句意思不同 (4) She wore the same dress that she wore at Mary’s wedding. 她穿着她在MARY婚礼上穿过的一条裙子。 (5) She wore the same dress as her young sister wore. 她穿着和她妹妹所穿的一样的裙子。 (三)以the way为先行词的定语从句通常由in which, that引导,而且通常可以省略。 (1) The way in which/ that/./ he answered the question was surprising. (四) but有时也可以做关系词引导定语从句 (1) There are very few but understand his idea. ( but= who don’t ) (五) 区分定语从句和同位语从句 1.定语从句修饰先行词,它和先行词是修饰关系;同位语从句说明先行词的具体内容,是补充说明的关系 (1) The plane that has just taken off is for London. 定语从句 (2) The fact that he has been dead is clear. 同位于从句 2.定语从句由关系代词或者关系副词引导,关系词在句中充当成分,有时可以省略;同位语从句主要由that引导,在句中一般不做成分;句子也可以由when, where, how, why, whether, what等词引导,充当成分 (1) The news he told me is true. (2) The news that he has just died is true. (3) The problem that we are facing now is how we can collect so much money. 定语 (4) The problem how we can collect so much money is difficult to solve. 3. 同位语从句和先行词一般可以用be动词发展成一个完整的句子,而定语从句不可以 (1) The idea that we could ask the teacher for advice is wonderful. 同位语 (2) The idea was that we could ask the teacher for advice. (3) The fact that the earth moves around the earth is known to all. (4) The fact is that the earth moves around the earth.

cikd英文什么意思

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有饭无范儿

注意!!定语从句的连接词不可以用what. 一.定语从句及相关术语 1.定语从句:修饰一个名词或代词的从句称为定语从句,一般紧跟在它所修饰的先行词后面。 2.关系词:引导定语从句的关联词成为关系词 关系词有关系代词和关系副词。关系代词有that, which, who, whom, whose, as 等; 关系副词有where, when, why等。 关系词常有3个作用:1,引导定语从句。2,代替先行词。3,在定语从句中担当一个成分。 二.关系代词引导的定语从句 1.who指人,在从句中做主语 (1) The boys who are playing football are from Class One. (2) Yesterday I helped an old man who lost his way. 2. whom指人,在定语从句中充当宾语,常可省略。 (1) Mr. Liu is the person (whom) you talked about on the bus. (2) Mr. Ling is just the boy whom I want to see. 注意:关系代词whom在口语和非正式语体中常用who代替,可省略。 (3) The man who/whom you met just now is my friend. 3. which指物,在定语从句中做主语或者宾语,做宾语时可省略 (1) Football is a game which is liked by most boys. (2) This is the pen (which) he bought yesterday. 4. that指人时,相当于who 或者whom;指物时,相当于which。在宾语从句中做主语或者宾语,做宾语时可省略。 (5) The number of the people that/who come to visit the city each year rises one million. (6) Where is the man that/whom I saw this morning? 5. whose通常指人,也可指物,在定语从句中做定语 (1) He has a friend whose father is a doctor. (2) I once lived in a house whose roof has fallen in. whose指物时,常用以下结构来代替 (3) The classroom whose door is broken will soon be repaired. (4) The classroom the door of which is broken will soon be repaired. (5) Do you like the book whose cover is yellow? (6) Do you like the book the color of which is yellow? 三.介词+关系代词引导的定语从句 关系代词在定语从句中做介词宾语时,从句常由介词+关系代词引导 (1) The school (that/which) he once studied in is very famous. (2) The school in which he once studied is very famous. (3) Tomorrow I will bring here a magazine (that/which) you asked for. (4) Tomorrow I will bring here a magazine for which you asked. (5) We'll go to hear the famous singer (whom/that/who) we have often talked about. (6) We'll go to hear the famous singer about whom we have often talked. 注意:1. 含有介词的动词短语一般不拆开使用,如:look for, look after, take care of等 (1) This is the watch which/that I am looking for. (T) (2) This is the watch for which I am looking. (F) 2. 若介词放在关系代词前,关系代词指人时用whom,不可用who或者that;指物时用which,不能用that;关系代词是所有格时用whose (1) The man with whom you talked is my friend. (T) (2) The man who/that you talked with is my friend. (F) (3) The plane in which we flew to Canada is very comfortable. (T) (4) The plane in that we flew in to Canada is very comfortable. (F) 3.“介词+关系代词”前可有some, any, none, both, all, neither, most, each, few等代词或者数词 (1) He loved his parents deeply, both of whom are very kind to him. (2) In the basket there are quite many apples, some of which have gone bad. (3) There are forty students in our class in all, most of whom are from big cities. 四.关系副词引导的定语从句 1. when指时间,在定语从句中做时间状语 (1) I still remember the day when I first came to the school. (2) The time when we got together finally came. 2. where指地点,在定语从句中做地点状语 (1) Shanghai is the city where I was born. (2) The house where I lived ten years ago has been pulled down. 3. why指原因,在定语从句中做原因状语 (1) Please tell me the reason why you missed the plane. (2) I don't know the reason why he looks unhappy today. 注意:关系副词引导的从句可以由“介词+关系代词”引导的从句替换 (1) The reason why/ for which he refused the invitation is not clear, (2) From the year when/in which he was going to school he began to know what he wanted when he grew up. (3) Great changes have taken place in the city in which/where I was born. 五.限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句 限制性定语从句举例: (1) The teacher told me that Tom was the only person that I could depend on. (2) China is a country which has a long history. 非限制性定语从句举例: (1) His mother, who loves him very much, is strict with him. (2) China, which was founded in 1949, is becoming more and more powerful. 要注意区分以下几个句子的不同 (1) His brother who is now a doctor always encourages him to go to college. 他那当医生的哥哥常鼓励他要考上大学。(他还有其他的哥哥) (2) His brother, who is now a doctor, always encourages him to go to college. 他的哥哥是当医生的,常鼓励他要考上大学。(他只有一个哥哥) 难点分析 (一)限制性定语从句只能用that 的几种情况 1.当先行词是anything, everything, nothing (something 除外), few, all, none, little, some 等代词时,或者是由every, any, all, some, no, little, few, much 等修饰时 (1) Have you taken down everything that Mr. Li has said? (2) There seems to be nothing that seems impossible for him in the world. (3) All that can be done has been done. (4) There is little that I can do for you. 注意:当先行词指人时,偶尔也可以用who (4) Any man that/.who has a sense of duty won't do such a thing. 2. 当先行词被序数词修饰 (1) The first place that they visited in London was the Big Ben. 3. 当先行词被形容词最高级修饰时 (1) This is the best film that I have seen. 4. 当形容词被the very, the only修饰时 (1) This is the very dictionary that I want to buy, (2) After the fire in his house, the old car is the only thing that he owned. 当先行词指人时,偶尔也可以用who (3) Wang Hua is the only person in our school who will attend the meeting/ 5. 当先行词前面有who, which等疑问代词时 (1) Who is the man that is standing there? (2) Which is the T-shirt that fits me most? 6. 当先行词既有人,也有动物或者物体时 (1) Can you remember the scientist and his theory that we have learned? (二)关系代词as和which 引导的定语从句 as和which引导非限制性定语从句,有相同之处也有不同之处。具体情况是: 1.As和which都可以在定语从句中做主语或者宾语,代表前面整个句子。 (1) He married her, as/which was natural. (2) He was honest, as/which we can see. 2. as引导非限制性定语从句,可放在主句之前,或者主句之后,甚至可以切割一个主句;which引导的非限制性定语从句只能放在主句之后。另外,as有“正如……,正像……”的意思 (1) As is known to all, China is a developing country. (2) He is from the south, as we can see from his accent. (3) John, as you know, is a famous writer. (4) He has been to Paris more than several times, which I don't believe. 注意:当主句和从句存在逻辑上的因果关系时,常用which (5) Tom was always late for school, which made his teacher angry. 3. 当先行次受such, the same修饰时,常用as (1) I have never heard such a story as he tells. (2) He is not such a fool as he looks. (3) This is the same book as I lost last week. 注意:当先行次由the same修饰时,偶尔也用that引导定语从句,但是和由as 所引导的定语从句意思不同 (4) She wore the same dress that she wore at Mary's wedding. 她穿着她在Mary婚礼上穿过的一条裙子。 (5) She wore the same dress as her young sister wore. 她穿着和她妹妹所穿的一样的裙子。 (三)以the way为先行词的定语从句通常由in which, that引导,而且通常可以省略。 (1) The way in which/ that/./ he answered the question was surprising. (四) but 有时也可以做关系词引导定语从句 (1) There are very few but understand his idea. ( but= who don't ) (五)区分定语从句和同位语从句 1.定语从句修饰先行词,它和先行词是修饰关系;同位语从句说明先行词的具体内容,是补充说明的关系 (1) The plane that has just taken off is for London. 定语从句 (2) The fact that he has been dead is clear. 同位于从句 2.定语从句由关系代词或者关系副词引导,关系词在句中充当成分,有时可以省略;同位语从句主要由that引导,在句中一般不做成分;句子也可以由when, where, how, why, whether, what等词引导,充当成分 (1) The news he told me is true. (2) The news that he has just died is true. (3) The problem that we are facing now is how we can collect so much money. 定语 (4) The problem how we can collect so much money is difficult to solve. 3. 同位语从句和先行词一般可以用be动词发展成一个完整的句子,而定语从句不可以 (1) The idea that we could ask the teacher for advice is wonderful. (2) The idea was that we could ask the teacher for advice. (3) The fact that the earth moves around the earth is known to all. 同位语 (4) The fact is that the earth moves around the earth. 参考资料: 英语定语从句主要由that和wh-词引导,本文分别称为that-从句和wh-从句.多数语法学家认为,二者在句法上属于同一种结构,具有相同的语义解释.本文则指出,它们在句法分布和语义解释方面都存在着一些差异.具体说来,在句法分布上,某些从句只能由that引导,而另外一些从句只能由wh-词引导;在语义方面,有些从句虽然既可以由that引导,也可以由wh-词引导,但得到的解释不同.考虑到文献中对于从句结构的分析都不能为这些差异提供合理解释,本文改进了定语从句的分析方法,并在此基础上对两种从句的差异做了解释,发现造成这些差异的主要因素在于被关系化成分的句法地位.

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天使之夜

亚历山大东征古代马其顿国王(公元前356.7,佩拉—前323.6.13,巴比伦),世界历史上伟大的军事家、统帅。亦称亚历山大大帝。腓力二世(公元前359一前336)之子,哲学家亚里士多德的弟子。 亚历山大幼时在其父指导下受过严格的军事训练,酷爱兵法,使他具有军事知识和强健的体质。11岁时,腓力二世即让他拜古希腊哲学家亚里土多德为师,学习三年,从亚里士多德那里学到了多方面的知识。公元前340年,16岁的亚历山大即随父征战。在克罗尼亚之战中,他的组织能力和统帅才干初露锋芒。他指挥腓力二世军队左翼骑兵英勇作战,配合腓力二世指挥的右翼骑兵,击溃了雅典等国联军,决定了交战的结局,为马其顿在希腊诸城邦中取得霸主地位奠定基础。 公元前336年夏,其父遇刺身亡后,20岁的亚历山大继承王位。此时局势却非常严重,王室和宫廷中有人谋废新主,希腊各城邦国纷纷宣布独立。亚历山大依靠腓力二世的亲信老将,首先剪除王室和宫廷中的异己,平定宫廷内乱。随后,迅速镇压北方部族暴动。继而挥师南下,血洗底比斯,迫使希腊诸城邦再次确认马其顿的霸主地位,并推举他为希腊联军最高统帅,并准备进兵东方。 亚历山大的远征是希马(其顿)联盟对波斯阿契美尼德王朝侵略战争的基本内容。进行这些远征是为了迎合希腊和马其顿奴隶主的意图:把劲敌从地中海和小亚细亚地区排挤出去并通过征服新的殖民地来缓和希腊各城邦国家之间的矛盾。波斯帝国是世界历史上第一个横跨亚、欧、非三大洲的帝国,波斯帝国疆域辽阔(西起地中海东岸,东达中亚阿姆河、锡尔河流域),但到公元前四世纪中叶,阿契美尼德王朝正经受社会政治危机,濒临崩溃边缘。最发达的西部行省(如小亚细亚、腓尼基、埃及)苦于波斯的统治,准备归顺希腊。波斯国王大流士三世的军队人数虽多,但大部分是各省的战斗力很差的骑兵和步兵民兵,只有少数(约1万人)训练有素但与波斯利益格格不入的希腊雇佣军(首领是梅姆农)。波斯步兵打仗如乌合之众,一触即溃。而强大的波斯海军(多达400艘战船)则称霸于爱琴海和地中海。公元前四世纪中叶,希腊各国联合以后(参见伯罗奔尼撒战争),马其顿在其杰出的统帅亚历山大领导下,成了巴尔干半岛上强大的奴隶制国家。临战前的马其顿军队,在组织上、技术上和战斗力上,都堪称为古代世界的一支优秀军队。这是一支常备军,其步兵来自自由农民,骑兵来自占有土地的贵族。步兵和骑兵都分为重、中、轻三种,都有精良的武器装备、成熟的战术和高超的战斗素养。马其顿军队战斗队形的基础是重步兵方阵。重步兵方阵的翼侧由骑兵掩护,正面则由轻步兵掩护。以方阵的强力猛攻完成骑兵、轻步兵和中步兵的冲击。当时的军队是由经验丰富的统帅安蒂帕特、帕曼尼昂、托勒玫·拉哥等人指挥的。弱小的希腊海军(近160艘战船)以爱琴海各港口为基地。 在对波斯战争的准备过程中,亚历山大镇压了马其顿世袭贵族中的反对派,消除了国家北部边界遭受相邻部落进攻的危险,平息了伯罗奔尼撒各城镇的骚乱,加强了希马(其顿)联盟,使各国公认他为武装力量的最高统帅。亚历山大给征集来参加战争的军队提供了足够的粮食、攻城器械和强渡江河的器材(攻城塔、平底船等)。一部分军队(约1.4万人)由安蒂帕特领导,留在马其顿守卫边疆和维持治安。亚历山大制订的作战计划可归纳为:采取稳扎稳打的战术,马其顿军队的主力通过赫勒斯滂海峡(今达达尼尔海峡)进入小亚细亚,首先征服波斯西部地区,切断波斯陆军同海军的联系,消灭其陆军,在地中海沿岸巩固下来,使其有了进一步远征的后方基地,又可使波斯舰队因失去基地而瓦解。然后继续向波斯纵深进军,推翻阿契美尼德王朝。而波斯的计划是:加强地中海沿岸的防御,登陆队在希腊登陆,以便在那里掀起反马其顿的起义,迫使亚历山大放弃对波斯的远征。公元前334年春,亚历山大借口波斯人曾蹂躏过希腊圣地和参预谋杀腓力二世,率马其顿军队(3万名步兵,5000名骑兵、160艘战船)利用赫勒斯滂海峡南岸的登陆场,顺利地横渡过该海峡并侵入小亚细亚。发动对波斯帝国的侵略性远征,开始了历时10年的东征之战。 5月,双方军队在小亚细亚西部的格拉尼库斯河相遇,开始了第一次交战。亚历山大将军队分成左右两翼,大部兵力安置在右翼由自己亲自指挥。他首先驱动右翼中部的轻骑兵和一部分步兵方阵向右斜攻波斯阵线的左翼。使对方造成错觉。以为希腊军队将包抄自己的左翼,当波斯军队主力急速调在左翼时,亚历山大亲自率领近卫重骑兵(战线极右翼)加步兵方阵(战线中部)直捣敌方战线中央。波斯军队出乎意料,在亚历山大军队的猛攻下中军溃散。希腊人乘势全线出击,波斯军大败,近4万人被消灭,十几名高级将领丧生(参见格拉尼库斯河战役)。亚历山大乘胜前进,占领了沿岸各城市以及弗里吉亚和吕底亚的港口,使波斯的舰队再也不能在临近希腊的地方停泊。小亚细亚的大多数城市不战而降。,起来抵抗的米莱图斯和哈利卡尔纳苏斯,经强攻后亦被占领。公元前333年,亚历山大占领了40多座滨海城市,迫使波斯舰队停泊点南移。此后,亚历山大的军队回师小亚细亚腹地,占领弗里吉亚和奇里乞亚。在后方和交通线得到保障以后,亚历山大继续征服滨海地区。 公元前333年11月,亚历山大经过伊苏斯(今土耳其伊斯肯德仑北)南下腓尼基。波斯国王大流士三世见国土不断丧失,便集合数十万军队(古希腊史学家阿利安在《亚历山大远征记》中讲有60万),迂回到希腊军队后方,在希腊军队离开伊苏斯的当天下午进入该城,试图出其不意地与亚历山大决战。企图切断马其顿军队的交通线(参见伊苏斯战役)。 此举出乎亚历山大意料,但他没有惊慌,在探明消息后立即命令部队后转,在急速转移中展开战斗队形,准备迎战,并争取在战术上出敌不意。此时,大流土三世已在皮拉鲁斯河摆好阵势。他自恃军力庞大,准备在对方排好阵势后,集中优势骑兵于右翼,从海岸边的平坦地带冲击、包围希腊军队。波斯左翼由杂牌步兵组成,步兵前面又排列了数排弓箭手,显然大流土想以左翼的守势掩护右翼的进攻。亚历山大见状,立即在行进中改变兵力配置,将骑兵都集中到自己的右翼,并且不等部队站稳,就率领全部轻重骑兵向对方左翼发起冲锋。波斯左翼的弓箭手刚放完第一箭,希腊骑兵已冲到面前,他们来不及换上箭,慌忙后撤,冲乱了身后的步兵阵势,希腊骑兵乘势冲杀,波斯左翼顷刻瓦解。大流士三世见左翼瓦解,不立即调整部署,利用优势兵力重组阵线,而是首先驾车逃跑。这样,波斯军队虽然仍在兵力上占优势,但主帅临阵脱逃,全军迅速崩溃。波斯军队的大批武器装备和金银财宝,大流士三世的母亲、皇后和两个公主都落入了亚历山大手中。 虽然伊苏斯之战的胜利为马其顿军队打开了通向中亚细亚的道路,但亚历山大却决定征服其余尚由波斯人控制的腓尼基、埃及和利比亚等滨海地区,消灭波斯舰队。 公元前332年,亚历山大继续南下。许多腓尼基城市不战而降。只有提尔城(今黎巴嫩苏尔)进行了长达7个月的顽强抵抗,亚历山大使用了撞槌、攻城塔、穿城螺旋锥等当时所有的攻城武器,才攻克波斯舰队的最后据点。城破之后,亚历山大将提尔三万居民都出卖为奴隶。在此前后,大流士三世曾提出割地媾和,表示愿意割让幼发拉底河以西的全部领土,赔款一万塔兰特,并将女儿嫁给亚历山大,但亚历山大要的是全亚洲,而不是幼发拉底河以西,所以断然拒绝。年底,亚历山大经过两个月的围困攻占加沙,接着进入埃及,他便毫不费力地征服了腓尼基的其它城市,征服了埃及和利比亚。为了笼络埃及祭司,他不仅慷慨解囊,而且极其隆重地去西瓦绿洲拜谒了阿蒙神庙。埃及祭司在感激之余宣布他为太阳神阿蒙之子、埃及法老的合法继承人。为建立东征的后方基地,他还在尼罗河口附近建立了第一座以自己的名字命名的城市——亚历山大城和港口。至此,波斯帝国西部和地中海的制海权都在亚历山大控制之中了。 亚历山大待最初几次进军的胜利成果稍微巩固之后,便开始入侵中亚细亚。公元前331年春,亚历山大率4万步兵、7000骑兵由埃及向美索不达米亚进军。10月,在尼尼微附近的高加米拉发生了希腊与波斯间的战略决战。关于波斯参战军队的数量,古代作家们有不同的记载(阿利安讲为骑兵4万,步兵100万,战车200万)。但无论如何,都远远多于亚历山大的军队。大流士三世依仗数量优势,首先让左翼向左前方出回,以攻击并包抄亚历山大的右翼。接着,又挥动右翼猛攻亚历山大的左翼。亚历山大的军队虽然英勇奋战,但战线还是被突破。可是大流士在突破战线后,立即分出相当兵力驰往战场后方7-8里处的亚历山大营地,解救自己的母亲、皇后和公主,劫掠财物粮秣。亚历山大抓住战机,一面稳住左右战线,一面亲自率领近卫重骑兵插入敌方左翼的缺口,从侧面直捣大流士所在的中军。此举完全出乎大流士意料,顿时惊慌失措,调头后逃。亚历山大放走大流士,率军向左右攻击波斯军。波斯军再次大败溃散(参见高加米拉战役)。高加米拉一战,波斯军队精锐尽失,亚历山大乘胜东进,占领巴比伦、苏萨、波斯波利斯、米底古都埃克巴坦那,灭亡古波斯帝国。夺得无数金银财宝仅金银一项即达15万塔兰特之多(1塔兰特约30kg)。大流士三世逃到本国北方各省,被他的一名总督杀死。 公元前330年夏,亚历山大动用数支骑兵纵队和乘马的轻步兵纵队沿里海南岸继续出征波斯北方和东方各省,征服了米太、希尔加尼亚、帕提亚(安息),侵入了大夏(巴克特里亚),并宣布自己为马其顿和波斯的“大帝”,阿契美尼德王朝“合法”继承者。为了巩固新王朝的军事政治基础,亚历山大在军队和行政部门起用波斯贵族,募集东方人参加军队,在军队和宫廷中推行繁文缛节。允许信教自由,实行东方礼仪,并与巴克特里亚王公之女罗克珊娜结婚。这些做法引起了亚历山大左右的希腊—马其顿人的不满,使得他和将领之间发生了冲突。公元前329年,马其顿军队入侵中亚细亚,一直打到奥克苏斯河(阿姆河)和亚克萨尔特河(锡尔河)的上游。在大夏和粟特(苏联塔吉克全境及乌兹别克的一部分)地区,遇到了以粟特人斯皮泰门为首的土著各族人民的强大抵抗,经过2年多的努力,作出了很大牺牲之后才将其镇压下去。为了镇压起义和保卫已占领的地方,亚历山大修建了许多驻扎着强大警卫部队的设防城市(亚历山大城)。这样的城市总共约70座。 公元前327年春,亚历山大率军(13.5万人)离开中亚,南下出征印度。在印度西部旁遮普的吉达斯普河(印度河支流)一带,马其顿军队费了很大气力才粉碎了印度皇帝波罗斯的军队的抵抗(参见吉达斯普河战役)。亚历山大本想继续向印度腹地进攻,但士兵多年出征作战,征途劳累,都拒绝继续前进,要求返回家园,加之气候不适,疾病侵袭,远征已成强弩之末。亚历山大只好于公元前326年留下守军后,下令回师。他决定派一部分军队走海路,以便为了探查横跨印度洋和波斯湾的航路,为此,公元前325年年初在希达斯派斯河上建立起一支拥有800艘战船和运输船的舰队,一部分军队乘船驶往印度河口,其余部队由陆路撤退。陆军第一纵队由亚历山大率领,经格德罗西亚班师,陆军第二纵队由克拉蒂尔指挥,经阿拉霍西亚班师。舰队由奈阿尔赫指挥。这次陆军行军和海军航渡十分困难,直到公元前324年春才返回两河流域的巴比伦。由于饥饿、酷暑和疾病,军队减员四分之三。亚历山大把巴比伦定为版图包括马其顿、小亚细亚和中亚细亚的这一古代世界新生的大国的首都,还准备进行新的远征。 然而公元前323年6月初,亚历山大突然患上恶性疟疾,13日病逝,终年仅33岁。 亚力山大东征历十载,行程万里,在西起巴尔干半岛,东达印度河,建立了地域辽阔的马其顿帝国,其军事才能和帝国面积只有后世的成吉思汗和其创建的蒙古帝国可与其相比。亚力山大采用东方的君主制,令臣民将他当作神崇拜,对反对者则无情镇压。亚历山大生前虽然,采取了一些加强统一的措施,但其帝国毕竟是在短期的武力征服中迅速建立起来的,并没有牢固的经济基础。他死后,帝国很快就崩溃了。他的部将们经过长期混战,陆续在帝国范围内建立了许多个具有希腊文明特色的独立国家。

168 评论(11)

cocoabread

udtcikdtu7jidtyc jgf

327 评论(15)

恋慕耐受不良

罗马史..自己去看 在下卷里吧

180 评论(15)

annking168

26个字母太多,哥特式字体毛笔可能也比较难写。

其他字母的毛笔英文字母图片,还是有一个现成的可以给你看:

137 评论(9)

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